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PRACTICAL  EXPERIENCE  WITH  THE 
WORK  WEEK  OF  FORTY-EIGHT 
—    HOURS  OR  LESS 


UNIVERFITY  of  CALIFORNIA 

AT 

LOS  ANGELES 

LIBRARY 


Research  Report  Number  32 
December,  1920 


National  Industrial  Conference  Board 

10  East  39th  Street 

New  York 


0 


-^  iJ    yj     A 


Copyright  1921 
National  Industrial  Conference  Board 


-S")  :z.^ 


i 


Foreword 

THE   current   importance  of    the   hours-of-work   problem 
arising  out  of  present  industrial  conditions  gives  timely 
interest  to  a  study  of  the  collective  experience  of  manufacturers 
'^  under  reduced  hours  of  work. 

\        This  report  presents  the  results  of  an  investigation  by  the 
f(>\(IJ' National  Industrial  Conference  Board  into  the  experience  of 
American   manufacturers,   mainly  those   in   whose  establish- 
ments   the    weekly    work    schedule     has    been     reduced    to 
48  hours  or   less  since   the   beginning  of  1919.     It  is  supple- 
mentary to  the  earlier  reports  on  the  hours-of-work  problem 
^  by     the     Board,    but    differs    in    that    the    latter  were  not 
•^    limited     to    any  special    work    schedules.       The    data    here 
presented  have  been   recently  collected,  and  all  unnecessary 
repetition    of  the   general   discussions  in  the   Board's  earlier 
reports  on  this  subject  is  avoided. 


.1 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

I.  Introduction 1 

Statement  of  Problem    1 

Scope  and  Method  of  Investigation    3 

Basis  of  the  Report    4 

Work-week  Schedules    5 

II.  Summary  of  Findings    7 

General  Conclusions 7 

Effect  of  Other  Factors  on  Output 9 

Changes  in  Output  by  Industries    12 

Experience  in  Great  Britain  16 

III.  Cotton  Manufacturing 17 

Changes  in  Work-week  Schedules 17 

Changes  in  Output  Accompanying  Reduction 

in  Hours 17 

Analysis  of  Changes  in  Output    18 

Conclusions  for  Cotton  Manufacturing 22 

General  Opinion  on  Length  of  Work  Week  ....  22 

IV.  Wool  Manufacturing 25 

Changes  in  Work-week  Schedules 25 

Changes  in  Output  Accompanying  Reduction 

in  Hours 25 

Analysis  of  Changes  in  Output    26 

Conclusions  for  Wool  Manufacturing 31 

General  Opinion  on  Length  of  Work  Week  ....  31 

V.  Silk  Manufacturing 33 

Changes  in  Work-week  Schedules 33 

Phanges  in  Output  Accompanying  Reduction 

in  Hours 33 

Analysis  of  Changes  in  Output    36 

Conclusions  for  Silk  Manufacturing 38 

General  Opinion  on  Length  of  Work  Week ....  39 

V 


CONTENTS— Conffnued 

PAGE 

VI.  Boot  and  Shoe  Manufacturing 41 

Changes  in  Work-week  Schedules 41 

Changes  in  Output  Accompanying  Reduction 

in  Hours 41 

Analysis  of  Changes  in  Output    44 

Conclusions  for  Boot  and  Shoe  Manufacturing  52 

General  Opinion  on  Length  of  Work  Week  ....  53 

VII.  Metal  Manufacturing 55 

Changes  in  Work-week  Schedules 55 

Changes  in  Output  Accompanying  Reduction 

in  Hours 55 

Analysis  of  Changes  in  Output    58 

Conclusions  for  Metal  Manufacturing 68 

General  Opinion  on  Length  of  Work  Week ....  69 

VIII.  Miscellaneous  Manufacturing  Industries.  ..  .  73 

Changes  in  Work-week  Schedules 73 

Changes  in  Output  Accompanying  Reduction 

in  Hours 74 

Analysis  of  Changes  in  Output    77 

Conclusions  for  Miscellaneous  Industries 85 

General  Opinion  on  Length  of  Work  Week  ....  86 


LIST  OF  NUMBERED  TABLES 

PAGE 

Table  1 :  Comparison  of  Changes  in  Weekly  Output  per 
Worker  Accompanying  Reduction  to  a  Schedule  of 
48  Hours  or  Less  in  Various  Manufacturing  Industries.      13 

Table  2:  Cotton  Manufacturing:  Changes  in  Weekly 
Output  per  Worker  Accompanying  Reduction  to  a 
48-Hour  Schedule 18 

Table  3:  Wool  Manufacturing:  Changes  in  Weekly  Out- 
put per  Worker  Accompanying  Reduction  to  a  48- 
Hour  Schedule 26 

Table  4:  Silk  Manufacturing:  Changes  in  Weekly  Out- 
put per  Worker  Accompanying  Reduction  to  a  Week 
of  48  Hours  or  Less 34 

Table  5:  Silk  Manufacturing:  Changes  in  Weekly  Out- 
put per  Worker  Accompanying  Reductions  to  a  48- 
Hour  Schedule 35 

Table  6:  Silk  Manufacturing:  Changes  in  Weekly  Out- 
put per  Worker  Accompanying  Reduction  to  a  44- 
Hour  Schedule 35 

Table  7:  Boot  and  Shoe  Manufacturing:  Changes  in 
Weekly  Output  per  Worker  Accompanying  Reduction 
to  a  Weekly  Schedule  of  48  Hours  or  Less 42 

Table  8:  Boot  and  Shoe  Manufacturing:  Changes  in 
Weekly  Output  per  Worker  Accompanying  Reduction 
to  a  48-Hour  Schedule 43 

Table  9:  Boot  and  Shoe  Manufacturing:  Changes  in 
Weekly  Output  per  Worker  Accompanying  Reduction 
to  a  45-Hour  Schedule 43 

Table  10:  Boot  and  Shoe  Manufacturing:  Changes  in 
Weekly  Output  per  Worker  Accompanying  Reduction 
to  a  44-Hour  Schedule 44 

Table  U:  Metal  Manufacturing:  Changes  in  Weekly 
Output  per  Worker  Accompanying  Reduction  to  a 
Week  of  48  Hours  or  Less 56 

711 


LIST  OF  NUMBERED  TABLES— Continued 

PAGE 

Table  12:  Metal  Manufacturing:  Changes  in  Weekly- 
Output  per  Worker  Accompanying  Reduction  to  a 
48-Hour  Schedule 57 

Table  13:  Metal  Manufacturing:  Changes  in  Weekly- 
Output  per  Worker  Accompanying  Reduction  to  a 
45-Hour  Schedule 57 

Table  14:  Metal  Manufacturing:  Changes  in  Weekly 
Output  per  Worker  Accompanying  Reduction  to  a 
44-Hour  Schedule 58 

Table  15:  Miscellaneous  Manufacturing  Industries: 
Changes  in  Weekly  Output  per  Worker  Accompanying 
Reduction  to  a  Week  of  48  Hours  or  Less 75 

Table  16:  Miscellaneous  Manufacturing  Industries: 
Changes  in  Weekly  Output  per  Worker  Accompanying 
Reduction  to  a  48-Hour  Schedule 75 

Table  17:  Miscellaneous  Manufacturing  Industries: 
Changes  in  Weekly  Output  per  Worker  Accompanying 
Reduction  to  a  45-Hour  Schedule 76 

Table  18:  Miscellaneous  Manufacturing  Industries: 
Changes  in  Weekly  Output  per  Worker  Accompanying 
Reduction  to  a  44-Hour  Schedule 76 


LIST  OF  DIAGRAMS 

PAGE 

Diagram  1:  Changes  in  Weekly  Output  Per  Worker 
Accompanying  Reduction  to  a  Week  of  48  Hours  or 
Less  in  Manufacturing  Industries 7 

Diagram  2:  Changes  in  Weekly  Output  Per  Worker 
Accompanying  Reduction  to  a  Week  of  48  Hours  or 
Less  for  Individual  Manufacturing  Industries 14 

Diagram  3:  Changes  in  Weekly  Output  Per  Worker 
Accompanying  a  Reduction  to  a  Week  of  48  Hours  or 
Less:     Cotton  Manufacturing 18 

Diagram  4:  Changes  in  Weekly  Output  Per  Worker 
Accompanying  a  Reduction  to  a  Week  of  48  Hours  or 
Less:     Wool  Manufacturing 26 

Diagram  5:  Changes  in  Weekly  Output  Per  Worker 
Accompanying  a  Reduction  to  a  Week  of  48  Hours  or 
Less:     Silk    Manufacturing 34 

Diagram  6:  Changes  in  Weekly  Output  Per  Worker 
Accompanying  a  Reduction  to  a  Week  of  48  Hours  or 
Less:     Boot  and  Shoe   Manufacturing 42 

Diagram  7:  Changes  in  Weekly  Output  Per  Worker 
Accompanying  a  Reduction  to  a  Week  of  48  Hours  or 
Less:     Metal  Manufacturing 56 

Diagram  8:  Changes  in  Weekly  Output  Per  Worker 
Accompanying  a  Reduction  to  a  Week  of  48  Hours  or 
Less:     Miscellaneous  Manufacturing  Industries 74 


Practical  Experience  With  The 

Work  Week  of  Forty-eight 

Hours  or  Less 


INTRODUCTION 

This  report  carries  forward  the  Conference  Board's  earlier 
studies  dealing  with  the  hours-of-work  problem.  The  data 
secured  in  this  investigation  cover  the  experience  of  manu- 
facturers extending  over  varying  periods,  but  most  of  the 
information  was  received  by  the  Board  between  March  and 
June,  1920.  In  practically  all  of  the  cases  included  in  this 
study  the  short  work  schedule  had  been  in  operation  during 
a  period  of  more  than  six  months. 

Statement  of  Problem 

The  problem  before  the  Board  in  the  present  investigation 
of  experience  with  a  work  week  of  48  hours  or  less  in  manu- 
facturing industries  was  to  determine  whether  or  not  such  a 
schedule  would  yield  the  same,  or  practically  the  same,  weekly 

'  The  following  reports  on  the  subject  of  hours  of  work  have  been  issued 
by  the  National  Industrial  Conference  Board: 

Research  Report  No.  4.  Hours  of  Work  as  Related  to  Output  and  Health 
of  Workers,  Cotton  Manufacturing,  March,  1918: 

Research  Report  No.  7.  Hours  of  Work  as  Related  to  Output  and  Health 
of  Workers,  Boot  and  Shoe  Industry,  June,  1918: 

Research  Report  No.  12.  Hours  of  Work  as  Related  to  Output  and  Health 
of  Workers,  Wool  Manufacturing,  December,  1918: 

Research  Report  No.  16.  Hours  of  Work  as  Related  to  Output  and  Health 
of  Workers,  Silk  Manufacturing,  March,  1919: 

Research  Report  No.  18.  Hours  of  Work  as  Related  to  Output  and  Health 
of  Workers,  Metal  Manufacturing,  March,  1919: 

Research  Report  No.  27.  The  Hours-of-Work  Problem  in  Five  Major  In- 
dustries, March,  1920. 

1 


output  per  worker  as  the  previous  longer  schedules  in  the  same 
plants  and  under  substantially  similar  conditions.  It  was  also 
desired  to  ascertain  what,  if  any,  were  the  effects  of  such 
change  in  work  hours  upon  the  quality  of  production  and  upon 
the  health  and  morale  of  the  workers. 

It  must  be  noted  at  the  outset  that  in  almost  every  case 
this  reduction  to  a  48-hour  week  or  less  was  the  latest  in  two  or 
more  reductions  extending  over  a  period  of  years,  and  that 
this  study  is  concerned  only  with  the  ability  of  a  plant  to 
maintain  weekly  production  at  the  level  existing  under  the 
schedule  of  hours  which  immediately  preceded.  Many  plants 
working  on  longer  schedules  may  have  been  able,  for  instance, 
to  maintain  production  after  a  reduction  to  a  54-hour  week, 
though  unable  to  keep  up  that  same  output  on  reducing  to  a 
48-hour  week  or  less.  Other  establishments,  in  which  produc- 
tion may  have  been  materially  decreased  by  reducing  to  a 
50-hour  week,  may  now  be  able  to  maintain  the  same  output 
in  48  as  in  50  hours  per  week. 

In  studying  output  data,  careful  discrimination  must  be 
made  between  hourly  and  weekly  output.  Obviously,  when 
working  time  is  reduced,  there  may  be  an  increase  in  the 
hourly  output,  while  the  total  weekly  output  may  nevertheless 
fall  below  the  previous  level. 

The  problem  of  measuring  the  effects  of  a  reduction  in 
working  time  is  exceedingly  complicated.  The  time  element  is 
only  one  factor  among  many  and  cannot  be  wholly  isolated 
from  the  large  number  of  others,  all  of  which  may  have  a 
bearing  upon  output.  To  arrive  at  sound  conclusions,  there- 
fore, it  is  necessary  to  recognize  all  of  the  factors  involved 
and  to  consider  them  in  connection  with  the  reduction  in 
working  time. 

Among  the  factors  which  may  affect  production,  collateral 
to  the  number  of  hours  worked,  are:  the  character  of  the  work 
performed;  wages  and  systems  of  wage  payment;  personnel 
of  the  workers;  and  changes  in  processes,  equipment,  material, 
style,  or  in  methods  of  management  or  in  management  itself. 
The  attitude  of  the  workers  and  local  labor  conditions  are  also 
important  considerations. 

2 


Scope  and  Method 

The  data  for  this  report  were  obtained  by  questionnaires 
designed  to  bring  out  all  the  important  facts  relating  to  experi- 
ence with  the  work  week  of  48  hours  or  less.  These  question- 
naires were  sent  out  to  practically  all  those  establishments  in 
the  major  manufacturing  industries  which  the  Board  was  able 
to  find  were  operating  on  such  schedules.  The  replies  received 
were  checked  by  correspondence  and  by  field  work  where 
necessary.  The  material  secured  by  the  Board  was  based  in 
the  greater  part  on  the  production  records  of  the  reporting 
establishments.  In  some  cases,  however,  the  statements 
were  expressions  of  judgment,  or  at  least  individual  interpreta- 
tions of  the  records  and  conditions. 

In  this  investigation,  estimates  of  the  ability  of  a  plant  to 
maintain  production  were,  in  general,  based  upon  nominal 
rather  than  actual  hours  of  work,  no  account  being  taken  of 
losses  of  time  within  the  plant,  such  as  are  involved  in  "make 
ready,"  in  getting  started,  cleaning  up,  etc. 

Only  those  establishments  actually  operating  on  a  schedule 
of  48  hours  or  less  were  included  in  this  investigation.  Certain 
plants  reporting  a  nominal  schedule  of  48  hours  per  week,  but 
having  actual  working  hours  regularly  in  excess  of  this  time, 
were  necessarily  excluded,  because  conclusions  as  to  the 
effects  of  a  reduction  to  a  week  of  48  hours  or  less  could  not 
properly  be  drawn  from  the  experience  of  such  plants.  Neither 
were  those  plants  included  in  which  manufacturing  conditions 
had  so  radically  changed  as  to  invalidate  a  comparison  of  out- 
put in  the  periods  before  and  after  the  change  in  hours. 

In  those  establishments  where  certain  departments  only 
were  afi^ected  by  the  reduction  in  hours,  or  where  women 
exclusively  were  working  on  the  basis  of  a  week  of  48  hours 
or  less,  only  those  workers  affected  were  included  in  the  total 
number  of  employees  for  that  industry. 

In  certain  establishments,  especially  in  the  boot  and  shoe 
industry,  it  was  reported  that  pieceworkers  kept  irregular 
hours,  approximately  the  same  as  before  the  reduction  in 
nominal  hours.  Such  establishments  were  included  because 
it  appeared  that  the  reduction  in  the  work  day  for  the  plant 
as  a  whole  was  conducive   to  better  attendance  on  the  part 

3 


of    the    pieceworkers    and  consequently  to  increased  hourly 
output  for  the  plant  as  a  whole. 

In  the  few  cases  in  the  investigation  in  which  a  change  from 
a  two-shift  to  a  three-shift  system  was  taken  account  of,  the 
change  was  viewed  solely  as  a  change  from  a  longer  to  a 
shorter  working  schedule,  comparisons  of  output  being  made 
on  the  basis  of  a  single  shift.  The  problem  of  the  shift  system 
itself  is  somewhat  distinct  from  that  of  a  reduction  in  work- 
ing timeK 

Basis  of  the  Report 

The  investigation  includes  establishments  in  the  cotton, 
wool,  silk,  boot  and  shoe,  metal,  and  certain  miscellaneous 
manufacturing  industries.  The  various  industries  were 
treated  separately  wherever  the  number  of  establishments 
replying  in  any  one  industry  was  considered  representative. 
The  number  of  establishments  and  total  number  of  employees 
in  each  industry  were  as  follows: 


Industry 

Number  of 
Plants 

Number  of 
Employees 

Cotton 

53 
61 
23 
88 

117     . 
94 

36,061 

Wool 

Silk 

37,049 
8,884 

Boot  and  Shoe 

65,162 

Metal 

Miscellaneous  (a) 

169,519 
56,861 

436 

373,536 

"  The  various  manufacturing  industries  included  in  the  miscellaneous  group 
and  the  number  of  establishments  in  each,  are  given  on  page  73  of  this  report. 

Most  of  the  plants  in  the  textile  and  boot  and  shoe  industries 
are  located  in  Massachusetts  and  other  eastern  States,  inas- 
much as  the  manufacturing  centers  for  these  products  are 
chiefly  in  this  section;  but  the  establishments  in  the  metal 
and  miscellaneous  industries  represent  practically  all  the 
large  manufacturing  centers  in  the  country. 

^In  changing  from  a  two-shift  to  a  three-shift  system,  if  hourly  output  is 
increased  at  all  there  is  an  increase  in  total  output  with  the  same  overhead  cost, 
and  the  problem  becomes  one  of  weighing  the  increased  production  against  the 
increased  labor  cost.  In  a  plant  operating  only  one  shift,  however,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  hourly  output  be  increased  to  the  extent  of  compensating  for  the  loss 
in  working  time,  else  overhead  cost  per  unit  of  product  is  increased. 

4 


The  establishments  studied  in  each  industry  range  in  size 
from  very  small  plants  employing  only  a  few  workers  to  ex- 
tremely large  ones  with  many  thousands  of  employees. 

The  change  in  work  hours  in  Massachusetts  establishments 
was  in  most  cases  largely  the  result  of  the  State  law,  effective 
July  17,  1919,  limiting  the  work  week  of  women  and  minors 
to  48  hours.  In  other  states  the  reduction  in  hours  was 
brought  about  chiefly  as  the  result  of  strikes,  trade  union 
activity,  request  of  employees  or  voluntary  agreement  with 
employees.  In  certain  cases  the  change  was  made  to  meet 
*'local  labor  conditions";  to  "follow  the  example  of  other 
mills,"  or  to  "better  working  conditions."  In  a  few  instances 
the  reduction  in  hours  in  individual  plants  was  the  result  of 
experiments  to  ascertain  the  most  satisfactory  working 
schedule. 

Most  of  the  changes  occurred  in  1919,  particularly  in  the 
textile  and  boot  and  shoe  industries,  which,  being  located  for 
the  most  part  in  Massachusetts  and  employing  a  large  number 
of  women  workers,  were  directly  affected  by  the  legislation 
in  that  State.  In  the  metal  industry,  however,  and  in  certain 
miscellaneous  industries,  where  the  fatigue  element  is  promi- 
nent, the  eight-hour  day  had  been  adopted  in  many  cases  at  a 
much  earlier  date. 

Approximately  one-fourth  of  the  total  number  of  employees 
in  the  establishments  studied  were  women.  The  proportion 
of  women  workers  to  the  total  working  force  in  the  various 
industries  was  as  follows:  cotton,  45.3%;  wool,  35.1%;  silk, 
44%;  boot  and  shoe,  34%;  metal,  5.7%;  miscellaneous, 
29.4%. 

Work-week  Schedules 

A  straight  "eight-hour  day"  with  a  6-day  week  was  found 
in  only  a  small  number  of  establishments.  Such  a  schedule 
was  reported  chiefly  by  those  plants  operating  three  shifts  a 
day,  of  which  only  a  very  few  were  included  in  this  study. 
By  far  the  larger  number  of  establishments  reported  a  48-hour 
week,  usually  with  somewhat  more  than  eight  hours  on  five 
days,  and  somewhat  more  than  four  hours  on  Saturday.  The 
45-hour  week  was  found  to  be  divided  into  five  days  with 
nine  hours  a  day.     The  44-hour  week,  where  found,  was  a 

5 


5^-day  week  with  eight  hours  on  five  days,  and  four  hours 
on  Saturday. 

The  work-week  schedules  reported  in  the  various  industries 
are  listed  below: 


Industry 

Number 

of 

Number  of  Hours 

Establishments 

Per  Week 

Cotton 

53 

/61 

14 
9 

48 

Wool 

48 

Silk 

48 

44 

Boot  and  Shoe 

52 

48 

1 

47 

31 

45 

5 

44 

Metal 

98 

1 

48 

47>^ 

1 

47 

6 

45 

2 

44>^ 

9 

44 

Miscellaneous 

72 

48 

1 

47 

1 

^6}4 

4 

45 

14 

44 

1 

43  >^ 

1 

473^  for  men, 
45  for  women 

In  the  large  majority  of  cases  those  plants  operating  on  a 
48-hour  schedule  had  reduced  from  a  week  of  54  or  55  hours. 
Practically  all  of  the  establishments  operating  on  a  45-hour 
schedule  had  reduced  from  50  or  55  hours,  and  those  operating 
on  a  44-hour  week  for  the  most  part  had  reduced  from  a  week 
of  48  hours. 


II 


SUMMARY  OF  FINDINGS 

The  re§:ults  of  this  investigation  into  experience  with  a  work- 
week of  48  hours  or  less  in  manufacturing  industries  are  here 
summarized.  Both  the  broad,  general  conclusions  reached 
and  the  findings  for  individual  industries  and  for  a  miscellane- 
ous group  are  included.         v 

General  Conclusions 

Changes  in  Weekly  Output 

1.  In  87.2%  of  the  establishments  studied  a  reduction  to 
a  work  week  of  48  hours  or  less  was  accompanied  by  a  decrease 
in  weekly  output  per  worker.  In  8.7%  of  the  plants  the 
workers  were  able  to  maintain  weekly  output,  and  in  a  very 
few  cases  (4.1%)  weekly  output  was  increased.  These 
results  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  chart. 


INCREASED 


Diagram  1 :  Changes  in  Weekly  Output  Per  Worker  Accom- 
panying Reduction  to  a  Week  of  48  Hours  or  Less  in  Manu- 
facturing Industries. 

436  Establishments — 373,536  Employees. 
7 


Changes  in  Hourly  Output 

2.  In  slightly  more  than  two-fifths  of  those  establishments 
in  which  weekly  output  was  decreased,  the  same  hourly  out- 
put was  maintained  as  under  the  previous  schedule  of  hours, 
and  the  decrease  was  therefore  approximately  in  proportion  to 
the  reduction  in  hours.  In  about  one-fifth  of  the  establish- 
ments which  showed  a  decline  in  weekly  output,  hourly  output 
was  increased  sufficiently  to  partially  offset  the  loss  in  working 
time,  and  the  loss  in  weekly  output  was  therefore  less  than 
proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours.  In  one-sixth  of  the 
establishments  suffering  reduced  weekly  production  there 
was  a  decrease  in  hourly  as  well  as  weekly  output,  or  a  decrease 
in  weekly  output  greater  than  proportional  to  the  reduction  in 
hours.  A  number  of  establishments  reported  a  decrease  in 
output  but  did  not  report  the  extent  of  such  decrease  per 
worker. 

Effects  on  Health  and  Contentment  of  Workers 

3.  The  Board  was  unable  to  secure  information  which 
would  warrant  valid  conclusions  regarding  the  effect  of  the 
reduction  in  hours  upon  the  health  of  the  workers  or  upon  the 
frequency  of  accidents.  In  most  cases  no  change  in  the  health 
of  the  workers  was  reported.  It  is  interesting  to  note,  how- 
ever, that  a  number  of  the  establishments  in  the  various 
industries  which  either  maintained  or  increased  previous  week- 
ly production,  reported  better  health  among  their  employees, 
either  as  a  result  of  the  shorter  hours  or  of  improved  working 
conditions. 

From  the  evidence  contained  in  the  replies  to  the  question- 
naire, it  was  impossible  to  reach  any  conclusions  as  to  the  effect 
of  the  reduction  in  hours  upon  the  contentment  of  the  work- 
ers. It  is  probable  that  in  many  cases  the  reduction  in  work- 
ing time  was  at  least  a  contributory  factor  in  improving  the 
contentment  of  the  worker;  but  so  many  other  factors  also 
entered  into  the  problem  and  in  so  many  cases  apparently 
completely  counteracted  the  effect  of  the  reduction  in  hours, 
that  it  was  not  possible  to  draw  any  definite  conclusions  in 
regard  to  the  effect  that  the  one  factor,  shortened  hours,  may 
have  had  in  this  regard. 


Effects  on  Quality  of  Product 

4.  On  the  whole,  the  quality  of  production  was  main- 
tained. A  very  few  establishments  reported  a  better  quality 
of  production.  In  certain  establishments,  however,  the 
speeding  up  by  the  workers  to  increase  hourly  output  resulted 
in  an  inferior  quality  of  goods,  and  in  other  instances  a  general 
slackening  on  the  part  of  the  workers  caused  a  decline  both 
in  quantity  and  in  quality  of  output^ 


Effect  of  Other  Factors  on  Output 

It  was  clearly  evident  in  this  investigation  that  a  large 
number  of  factors  beside  the  reduction  in  working  time  were 
involved  in  these  changes  in  output.  The  findings  of  the 
investigation  with  regard  to  these  collateral  factors  are  sum- 
marized as  follows: 


Character  of  the  Work 

1.  The  character  of  the  work,  i.  e.,  whether  the  process 
was  largely  handwork  or  machine  work,  for  the  most  part 
determined  whether  or  not  it  was  possible  for  the  worker  to 
increase  hourly  output. 

In  those  industries,  such  as  cotton  manufacturing,  where 
highly  automatic  machine  processes  predominated,  the  output 
was  limited  almost  entirely  by  the  speed  of  the  machines.  In 
practically  every  case  a  reduction  in  hours  was  accompanied 
by  a  decrease  in  output.  In  those  industries,  however,  where 
handwork  predominated  in  the  manufacturing  processes,  or 
where  the  skill  and  speed  of  the  operative  in  handling  the 
machines  were  the  controlling  factors — such  as  in  the  boot  and 
shoe  industry  or  in  certain  kinds  of  metal  manufacturing, 
and  in  certain  miscellaneous  industries — it  was  possible  to  in- 
crease the  hourly  output  of  the  workers,  in  some  cases  to  the 

'In  this  connection  it  must  be  considered  that  during  this  period  it  was  still 
difficult  in  some  cases  to  procure  a  good  quality  of  raw  material  because  of  the 
influence  of  war  demand,  and  that  the  quality  of  production  might  have  been 
thereby  aflFected.     There  is,  however,  very  little  evidence  on  this  point. 

9 


extent  of  entirely  compensating  for  the  loss  in  working  time 
or  even  exceeding  the  previous  weekly  production.^ 

Character  of  the  Working  Force 

2.  Whether  or  not  a  plant  increased  hourly  output,  where 
the  character  of  the  work  made  such  increase  possible,  seemed 
to  depend  largely  upon  the  general  attitude  and  character- 
istics of  the  working  force. 

Although  labor  unrest  was  noted  to  some  extent  in  establish- 
ments in  every  group,  in  most  cases  where  increased  hourly 
output  was  reported,  contentment  and  a  spirit  of  cooperation 
on  the  part  of  the  workers  were  noted,  and  a  large  proportion 
of  establishments  showing  a  decrease  in  hourly  output  report- 
ed dissatisfied,  indifferent  workers. 

The  labor  supply  apparently  also  had  a  direct  bearing  upon 
output.  Scarcity  of  skilled  labor  in  a  number  of  cases  resulted 
in  an  inferior  quality  of  production  and  reduced  output,  both 
because  of  the  unskilled  workers  necessarily  employed  in  part, 
and  because  of  the  lessened  ability  of  management  to  enforce 
discipline  under  the  circumstances. 

Irregularity  in  attendance  accompanying  high  wages  was 
also  reported  as  materially  influencing  output. 

It  was  not  found  that  the  proportion  of  women  workers  in 
any  way  affected  output. 

The  evidence  did  not  show  that  the  nationality  and  racial 
characteristics  of  the  workers  had  any  material  influence 
upon  output. 

Changes  in  Management  or  Equipment 

3.  Changes  in  management  or  equipment  accompanied 
the  change  in  hours  in  a  number  of  establishments,  and  in  a 
significant  number  of  instances  accounted  for  marked  in- 
creases in  output. 

^It  must  be  noted  that  while  the  various  industries  are  characterized  as  largely 
handwork  or  largely  automatic  machine  work,  within  each  industry,  no  matter 
what  its  general  characterization,  certain  processes  are  almost  purely  handwork 
and  other  processes  almost  purely  automatic  machine  work,  with  a  great  range 
of  combinations  of  handwork  and  machine  work  in  others.  In  individual  plants 
manufacturing  specialized  products,  moreover,  the  character  of  the  work  is  often 
entirely  different  from  that  which  characterizes  the  industry  as  a  whole. 

10 


Although  as  a  rule  the  most  efficient  speed  for  obtaining 
maximum  results  from  the  machinery  had  already  been  de- 
termined and  adopted,  in  certain  cases  it  was  found  possible  to 
increase  the  speed  of  the  machines  and  thereby  increase  output 
to  that  extent.  The  installation  of  additional  machinery  or 
improved  machinery  also  aided  production  in  certain  of  the 
establishments  studied^ 

JVages 

4.  It  was  practically  impossible  to  ascertain  that,  in 
general,  increases  in  wage-rates  had  any  effect  upon  the  effi- 
ciency of  workers,  inasmuch  as  all  wages  were  increased  so 
greatly  during  the  period  covered  by  the  investigation.  In  a 
number  of  establishments,  however,  where  piece-rates  were 
reported  unchanged  at  the  time  of  the  reduction  in  hours,  the 
pieceworkers  increased  hourly  output,  often  sufficiently  to 
compensate  for  the  loss  in  working  time. 

The  system  of  wage  payment  itself,  however,  seemed  to 
have  a  direct  influence  upon  output.  In  almost  every  case 
where  a  difference  in  production  was  reported,  pieceworkers 
were  more  successful  in  maintaining  output  than  were  day- 
workers.  In  each  industry  it  was  characteristic  of  the  group 
which  suffered  a  less  than  proportional  decrease  in  weekly 
output  that  in  a  large  proportion  of  the  establishments  the 
increase  in  hourly  output  was  credited  to  the  pieceworkers. 
A  bonus  system,  whether  used  in  place  of,  or  in  conjunction 
with,  the  piece-rate  system  of  wage  payment,  in  a  significant 
number  of  cases  proved  an  incentive  to  increase  production. 
So  little  experience  with  profit-sharing  was  reported  that  no 
conclusion  could  be  drawn  in  regard  to  its  influence. 

Extevt  of  Reduction  in  Hours 

5.  The  extent  of  reduction  in  working  time  seemed  to  have 
little  bearing  upon  ability  to  maintain  production. 

^It  must  be  considered,  however,  that  those  estabhshments  already  operating 
with  a  high  degree  of  efficiency  had  less  opportunity  to  improve  methods  of 
management  than  those  with  a  lower  degree  of  efficiency. 

^  The  proportion  of  pieceworkers  in  each  industry  was  as  follows:  cotton, 
58.4%;  wool,  48.0%;  silk,  64.7%;  boot  and  shoe,  69.5%;  metal,  23.2%;  miscel- 
laneous industries,  47.9%.  A  large  number  of  metal  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments and  establishments  manufacturing  miscellaneous  products  reported 
no  pieceworkers. 

11 


For  instance,  those  plants  which  reduced  their  working 
schedule  from  50  hours  to  48  hours  per  week  did  not,  on  the 
whole,  show  a  markedly  better  ability  to  increase  hourly 
output  than  those  which  reduced  from  a  longer  schedule  of 
hours. 

Those  establishments  which  reduced  to  less  than  48  hours 
per  week  suffered  approximately  the  same  relative  decrease  in 
production  as  those  reducing  only  to  the  48-hour  week,  except 
in  one  industry.  In  the  boot  and  shoe  industry  a  majority 
of  the  establishments  in  the  45-hour  group  suffered  a  greater 
than  proportional  decrease  in  weekly  output,  but  other  factors 
so  complicated  the  problem  in  the  case  of  these  plants  that 
this  result  could  not  be  attributed  wholly  to  the  reduced  hours 
of  work. 

So  little  experience  with  the  three-shift  day  was  reported 
that  no  general  statement  can  be  made  regarding  the  efficiency 
of  operating  on  this  basis.  (See  page  4.)  It  is  interesting  to 
note,  however,  that  half  of  those  establishments  changing 
from  a  two-shift  to  a  three-shift  day  reported  a  proportional 
decrease  in  weekly  output,  or  no  change  in  hourly  output. 
Only  one  establishment  reported  a  maintenance  of  previous 
weekly  output  per  worker,  which  was  credited  largely  to 
better  methods  of  production.  The  other  establishments 
either  reported  a  less  than  proportional  decrease  in  weekly 
output;  that  is,  an  increase  in  hourly  output,  or  reported  a 
decrease  in  weekly  output  without  stating  the  amount  of  such 
decrease. 

Size  of  Establishment 

6.  The  size  of  the  establishment  had  in  itself  no  apparent 
relation  to  the  ability  of  a  plant  to  maintain  output.  This 
was  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  those  groups  which  increased 
as  well  as  in  those  which  decreased  output,  both  very  large 
and  very  small  establishments  were  found. 

Changes  in  Output  by  Industries 

The  changes  in  output  accompanying  the  reduction  in 
hours  in  the  various  industries  are  shown  in  the  following 
table.     The  results  in  this  table  have  been  presented  by  the 

12 


number  of  establishments  only,  inasmuch  as  the  number  of 
employees  in  the  plant  was  found  in  general  to  have  no  bear- 
ing upon  the  ability  of  a  plant  to  maintain  output. 

TABLE  1:  COMPARISON  OF  CHANGES  IN  WEEKLY  OUTPUT  PER 
WORKER  ACCOMPANYING  REDUCTION  TO  A  SCHEDULE  OF 
48  HOURS  OR  LESS  IN  VARIOUS  MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES 


Establishments  Reporting 

Industry 

Output 
Increased 

Output 

Maintained 

Output 
Decreased 

Total 

Cotton 

Wool 

'3 
9 
6 

1 

1 
13 
16 

7 

53 
60 
22 
72 
92 
81 

53 
61 

SilL 

23 

Boot  and  Shoe 

Metal 

88 
117 

Miscellaneous 

94 

Total 

18 

38 

380 

436 

These  changes  in  output  are  also  shown  graphically  in  the 
diagram  on  the  following  page. 

1.  In  the  cotton  manufacturing  industry y  in  which  auto- 
matic machine  processes  predominate,  the  adoption  of  a  48- 
hour  week  resulted  in  a  loss  in  weekly  production  in  all  of  the 
53  establishments  studied.  No  improvement  in  the  hourly 
output  per  worker  occurred,  except  in  five  plants. 

2.  In  the  wool  industry,  in  which  automatic  machine  pro- 
cesses also  largely  predominate,  although  to  a  less  extent  than 
in  cotton  manufacturing,  adoption  of  a  48-hour  week  was 
accompanied  by  a  loss  in  weekly  output  in  all  but  one  of  the 
61  establishments  studied.  In  this  industry,  however,  a  larger 
number  of  establishments  than  in  the  cotton  industry  reported 
an  increase  in  hourly  output.  The  one  establishment  which 
was  able  to  maintain  weekly  output  was  a  felt  hat  man- 
ufacturing company. 

3.  In  the  silk  manufacturing  industry^  in  which  handwork 
is  a  somewhat  more  important  element  than  in  either  cotton 
or  wool  manufacturing,  the  adoption  of  either  the  48-hour  or 
44-hour  week  was  accompanied  by  a  loss  in  weekly  output  in 

13 


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14 


22  of  the  23  establishments  from  which  data  were  secured. 
An  improvement  in  hourly  output  was  reported  in  five 
establishments,  but  in  one  case  only  was  this  improvement 
sufficient  to  offset  the  reduction  in  working  time. 

4.  In  the  boot  and  shoe  industry,  in  which  machine  processes 
are  highly  developed,  but  in  which  the  speed  and  skill  of  the 
operative  is  a  most  important  factor,  the  adoption  of  a  week 
of  48  hours  or  less  was  accompanied  by  loss  in  weekly  output 
in  72  of  the  88  establishments.  Thirteen  establishments  were 
able  to  increase  hourly  output  sufficiently  to  compensate  for 
the  loss  in  working  time,  and  three  establishments  were  even 
able  to  exceed  previous  weekly  production. 

5.  Of  the  117  establishments  in  the  metal  manufacturing 
industry,  approximately  92  plants,  or  80%  reported  that  the 
reduction  in  hours  was  accompanied  by  a  loss  in  output.  Here 
also  the  number  of  establishments  (46)  in  which  the  reduction 
in  hours  was  accompanied  by  an  increase  in  hourly  output  was 
significant.  In  25  cases  this  increase  in  hourly  output  was 
sufficient  wholly  to  offset  the  reduction  in  hours.  In  nine 
plants  the  total  weekly  production  showed  an  increase.  In 
certain  establishments  in  this  group,  heavy  physical  labor  or 
handwork  processes  were  a  prominent  feature;  in  others,  how- 
ever, more  or  less  automatic  machine  processes  predominate. 
The  extent  to  which  handwork  or  heavy  physical  labor  were 
marked  had  a  bearing  on  ability  of  plants  in  this  industry  to 
maintain  production. 

6.  Of  the  94  establishments  in  the  group  of  miscellaneous 
industries  six  plants  increased  weekly  output  and  seven 
plants  maintained  weekly  output.  The  miscellaneous  indus- 
tries, even  more  than  the  metal  manufacturing  industries,  were 
characterized  by  a  large  variety  of  processes,  ranging  from 
those  in  which  physical  labor  was  a  large  factor  to 
those  marked  by  purely  automatic  machine  work.  Here 
again  the  extent  to  which  handwork  was  a  feature  of  the 
industry  had  a  bearing  on  the  ability  of  plants  to  maintain 
production. 

More  detailed  statements  of  these  findings  are  given  in  the 
separate  discussions  of  the  individual  industries. 

15 


Experience  in  Great  Britain 

The  findings  in  this  report  correspond  generally  to  those  in 
the  report  of  the  British  Inspector  of  Factories,  recently 
issued,  wherein  it  was  stated: 

The  reports  disclose  wide  differences  of  experience  as  to  the  effect 
of  the  shorter  hours  on  production.  Frequently  it  is  impossible  to 
make  a  fair  comparison  of  output  before  and  after  the  shortening  of 
hours  of  work,  owing  to  other  changes  in  conditions.  Among  these 
changes  may  be  mentioned  alterations  in  machinery  or  organization, 
extensions  of  work  necessitating  the  employment  of  much  untrained 
labor,  scarcity  of  workers  (particularly  of  skilled  workers),  irregular 
supplies  of  materials,  changes  in  quality  or  class  of  product  and  in 
systems  of  payment. 

When  the  production  depends  almost  entirely  on  the  speed  of  ma- 
chinery— as  in  cotton  or  woolen  spinning — the  output  is  said  to  be 
reduced  in  a  proportion  nearly,  if  not  fully,  corresponding  to  the  re- 
duction in  hours.  In  other  machine  operations  which  call  for  constant 
alertness  on  the  part  of  the  operator  (e.  g.,  weaving)  output  has  not 
suffered  to  this  extent,  and,  in  exceptional  cases,  has  scarcely  been 
affected  at  all.  In  a  third  class  of  process,  where  output  is  largely  or 
entirely  dependent  upon  the  exertion  of  the  worker,  there  is  frequently 
no  loss  in  production.  Indeed,  in  one  wholesale  tailoring  establish- 
ment an  increase  of  40  per  cent  is  reported  (partly  due  to  reorganiza- 
tion); while  in  a  boot  factory,  where  the  hours  of  work  were  reduced 
from  52  to  48  per  week,  there  was  a  considerable  increase  in  output. 
Unfortunately,  a  few  of  the  reports  indicate  an  extremely  unfavorable 
result  in  some  works,  where  the  shortening  of  hours  has  been  followed 
by  a  reduction  in  the  hourly  rate  of  production,  and  for  this  result 
no  adequate  explanation  has,  as  a  rule,  been  given.' 

'Great   Britain.     Chief  Inspector  of  Factories   and   Workshops.     Annual 
Report,  1919,  pp.  88-94. 


16 


Ill 

COTTON  MANUFACTURING 

Data  for  this  industry  covered  53  cotton  manufacturing 
establishments,  all  of  them  Northern  mills,  employing  36,061 
workers. 

Changes  in  Work-week  Schedules 

All  of  these  establishments  reported  a  reduction  to  a  weekly 
schedule  of  48  hours.  In  nearly  every  case  this  schedule  was 
divided  into  a  5^^-day  week,  with  a  Saturday  half-holiday. 
In  two  cases,  where  there  was  a  change  from  a  two-shift 
to  a  three-shift  day,  the  full  six-day  week  with  eight  hours  a 
day  was  reported.  In  one  case  the  five-day  week  had  been 
adopted  by  an  establishment  working  two  shifts  a  day,  and 
employing  no  women. 

Before  the  reduction  all  establishments  had  operated  on  a 
5^-day  week,  except  in  one  case  where  the  work  was  on  a  two- 
shift  basis.  In  47  of  the  53  plants  the  reduction  was  from  a 
54-hour  week.  One  plant  previously  operated  on  two  shifts 
of  66  and  78  hours.  In  the  other  establishments  the  previous 
schedules  varied  from  50  to  58  hours. 

Changes  in  Output  Accompanying  Reduction  in  Hours 

None  of  the  plants  covered  in  this  industry  were  able  to 
maintain  or  increase  weekly  output  per  worker  after  the  re- 
duction to  a  48-hour  week.  Five  plants  increased  hourly 
output,  but  not  sufficiently  to  maintain  weekly  output;  that 
is,  they  decreased  weekly  output  less  than  in  proportion  to 
the  reduction  in  hours.  The  largest  group  was  composed  of 
27  plants,  which  maintained  hourly  output,  but  decreased 
weekly  output  in  proportion  to  the  reduction  in  working 
hours.  The  group  which  decreased  output  more  than  in  pro- 
portion to  the  reduction  in  hours  included  14  establishments. 
These  establishments  suffered  a  decrease  in  hourly  output  as 
well  as  in  total  weekly  output.  Seven  establishments  reported 
output  decreased,  but  did  not  state  the  amount  of  such  decrease. 

The  changes  in  weekly  output  in  the  establishments  covered 
are  shown  in  the  following  table,  which  gives  the  number  of 

17 


plants  and  the  percentage  of  the  total   number  of  employees 
included  in  each  group: 

TABLE   2:  COTTON  MANUFACTURING:  CHANGES  IN  WEEKLY  OUT- 
PUT PER  WORKER  ACCOMPANYING  REDUCTION  TO  A  48-HOUR 

SCHEDULE 

(National  Industrial  Conference  Board) 


Changes  In  Output 

Establish- 
ments 
Reporting 

Percentage 
of  Total  Em- 
ployees in 
Group 

Increased     

0 
0 

5 
27 

14 

7 

0.0 

Maintained 

0.0 

Decrease,  less  than  proportional  to  the  reduction 
in  hours 

11.2 

Decrease,  proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours   . 
Decrease,  greater  than  proportional  to  the  reduc- 
tion in  hours  .                                       

43.2 
36.5 

Decrease,  amount  not  stated 

9.1 

Total 

53 

100.0 

These  changes  are  illustrated  also  in  the  following  diagram, 
which  shows  the  percentage  of  the  total  number  of  plants 
reporting  changes  in  each  group: 


Diagram  3:  Changes  in 
Weekly  Output  Per  Worker 
Accompanying  a  Reduction  to 
A  Week  of  48  Hours  or  Less: 
Cotton  Manufacturing. 
53  E^stablishments 


Analysis  of  Changes  in  Output 

Output  Increased  or  Maintained 

None  of  the  plants  covered  in  this  industry  were  able  to 
increase  or  even  maintain  weekly  output  per  worker  after 
reducing  to  a  48-hour  week. 

18 


Decrease  in  Output  Less  than  Proportional  to  Reduction  in  Hours. 

Five  plants  reported  an  increase  in  hourly  output,  or  a  de- 
crease in  weekly  output  per  worker  less  than  proportional  to 
the  reduction  in  hours. 

Three  of  the  five  establishments  stated  that  pieceworkers 
were  better  able  to  increase  hourly  output  than  day  workers. 
One  of  these  manufacturers,  however,  declared  that  the  piece- 
work was  somewhat  inferior  in  quality.  The  other  two  estab- 
lishments reported  a  general  decrease  in  weekly  output 
throughout  all  departments,  somewhat  less  than  proportional 
to  the  reduction  in  hours. 

Proportional  Decrease  in  Output. 

By  far  the  largest  group  consisted  of  those  establishments 
which  maintained  hourly  output,  that  is,  whose  decrease 
in  weekly  output  per  worker  was  proportional  to  the  reduction 
in  hours.    This  group  included  27  establishments. 

In  one  establishment  new  machinery  was  installed,  and 
in  another  the  machinery  was  speeded  up  in  an  effort  to  main- 
tain production,  but  the  other  plants  reported  no  changes 
which  would  have  a  bearing  on  output. 

Three  establishments  reported  that  piecework  output  was 
decreased  slightly  less  than  daywork  output,  but  that  the 
general  decrease  was  approximately  proportional  to  the  re- 
duction in  hours. 

Practically  all  of  these  establishments  reported  that  there 
was  no  change  in  the  attitude  of  the  workers  after  the  reduc- 
tion in  hours  of  work. 

In  four  of  the  27  plants  an  inferior  quality  of  production 
was  noted,  but  all  others  reported  that  the  quality  was  main- 
tained. 

One  manufacturer  reported  that  the  workers  temporarily 
increased  hourly  output,  but  gradually  reverted  to  the  old 
hourly  rate  of  production: 

This  company  adopted  the  48-hoiir  schedule  over  three  years  ago 
on  humane  grounds.  From  an  examination  of  statistics  it  would  seem 
that  for  a  little  while  production  was  kept  up,  then  slipped  back  to 
the  old  hourly  average.    It  is  certain  that  where  machines  are  largely 

19 


automatic,  and  the  hours  per  day  are  reduced  from  9  to  8  the  produc- 
tion is  reduced  in  proportion. 

A  manufacturer  of  cotton  cloth  stated: 

When  we  reduced  our  hours  from  60  to  54  there  was  absolutely  no 
gain  per  hour  in  production,  and  when  we  reduced  from  54  to  48 
I  could  not  see  that  we  gained  one  pick  per  hour.  The  disposition  to 
give  a  full  day's  work  of  8  hours  Is  less  than  it  was  to  give  a  full  day's 
work  of  9  hours. 

One  manufacturer  of  cotton  warp  wrote: 

Our  general  production  has  fallen  off  about  proportionately  to  the 
hours  worked.  The  workers  feel  that  they  have  the  right  to  soldier 
as  much  on  short  hours  as  on  the  longer  time. 

A  braid  manufacturing  establishment  reported  the  follow- 
ing experience: 

Change  in  production  is  due  entirely  to  the  fewer  hours  worked,  as 
production  per  machine  is  governed  by  time  run. 

A  manufacturer  of  denims  stated: 

We  have  no  reason  to  complain  that  our  employees  are  not  en- 
deavoring to  give  us  as  honest  work  for  48  hours  as  they  did  for  54. 
We  have  a  good  understanding  with  our  employees  and  we  think 
they  appreciate  our  efforts  in  trying  to  treat  them  fairly  and  hon- 
estly, and  with  very  few  exceptions  we  believe  they  are  trying  to 
reciprocate. 

Greater  than  Proportional  Decrease  in  Output. 

Fourteen  establishments  reported  a  decrease  in  weekly 
output  greater  than  proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours, 
or  a  decrease  in  hourly  as  well  as  weekly  output. 

Most  of  the  establishments  reported  a  general  decrease 
throughout  the  plant.  In  a  few  plants  the  decrease  was 
especially  noticeable  in  certain  departments,  notably  weav- 
ing, carding,  spooling  and  spinning.  Three  establishments 
reported  a  decrease  in  the  quality  of  production.  Eight  of  the 
14  establishments  reported  increased  discontent  and  indiffer- 
ence on  the  part  of  the  workers. 

In  a  number  of  cases  other  factors  besides  the  reduction  in 
hours  were  reported  as  affecting  output.  Irregularity  of 
attendance  accompanying  high  wages  was  considered  largely 
responsible  for  decreased  output  in  several  establishments. 

The  management  of  one  large  gingham  manufacturing 
establishment   which   conducted   extensive   educational   work 

20 


among  its  employees  and  reported  a  very  low  labor  turnover, 
made  the  following  statement: 

Our  production  is  exactly  20.3%  less  than  in  1915 — 11.1%  less 
because  of  the  reduction  from  a  54  to  a  48  hour  week,  9.2%  because 
of  absenteeism  and  inefficiency.  Our  foreign  help  cannot  yet  ac- 
custom themselves  to  high  wages.  For  $1.00  in  individual  wages 
per  hour  five  years  ago  we  now  pay  $3.23,  and  the  workers  do  not 
produce  as  much  individually  per  hour. 

A  manufacturer  of  cotton  novelties  related  the  following 
experience: 

After  the  change  in  hours  from  54  to  48,  our  plant  showed  not 
only  a  decrease  in  the  weekly  output,  but  a  decrease  in  the  hourly 
output.  This  we  think  was  due  not  altogether  to  the  indifference  of 
the  workers,  but  to  the  growing  scarcity  of  labor  at  that  time.  We 
believe,  however,  that  if  we  had  had  the  same  workers  at  both  periods, 
production  would  have  decreased  in  proportion  to  the  decrease  in 
hours.  We  have  had  more  labor  difficulties  since  the  decrease  in 
hours  than  ever  before,  but  this  we  think  has  been  due  to  abnormal 
conditions  and  to  the  scarcity  of  labor. 

A  cotton  cloth  manufacturer  stated: 

Our  operatives  show  increasing  discontent,  inefficiency,  and  a 
considerable  number  of  them  are  deliberately  laying  down  on  their 
work,  apparently  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  full  production. 

Another  cotton  cloth  manufacturer  expressed  the  following 
opinion: 

Hours  of  labor  have  been  reduced  to  the  point  where  it  is  causing 
laziness. 

Another  stated: 

Our  experience  on  the  day  run  has  shown  that  we  are  probably 
losing  something  more  than  the  proportional  loss  in  product  because  of 
the  reduction  in  hours,  but  in  our  judgment  this  is  largely  due  to  a 
general  shortage  of  textile  mill  help  and  to  the  use  of  help  of  a  lower 
grade  of  ability  than  we  employed  several  years  ago.  Increased 
earnings  due  to  wage  increases  have  also  tended  to  reduce  the  steadi- 
ness with  which  the  operative  works. 

The  establishments  in  this  group  were  characterized  by 
evidences  of  general  labor  unrest  among  the  employees. 

Decrease  in  Output — Amount  Not  Stated. 

In  addition  to  the  above  groups  seven  establishments  re- 
ported a  decrease  in  weekly  output  but  did  not  state  the 
amount  of  such  decrease.     None  of  these  establishments  re- 

21 


ported    unusual   features   which    would    explain    the   decrease 
in  output. 

Conclusions  for  Cotton   Manufacturing 

1.  Because  of  the  predominance  of  automatic  machine 
processes  in  the  cotton  manufacturing  industry,  output  was 
limited  almost  entirely  by  the  length  of  time  the  machines 
were  run.  This  was  shown  by  the  fact  that  none  of  the  53 
establishments  studied  were  able  to  maintain  weekly  output 
under  the  48-hour  week,  and  only  five  establishments  re- 
ported an  increase  in  hourly  output.  A  majority  of  the 
plants  decreased  weekly  output  approximately  in  proportion 
to  the  reduction  in   hours. 

2.  In  a  few  cases  pieceworkers  were  better  able  to  main- 
tain output  than  day  workers,  though  in  the  reports  of  most 
of  the  establishments  no  differentiation  was  made  between 
piecework  and  day  work  output. 

3.  Evidences  of  general  labor  unrest  were  most  apparent 
in  those  plants  which  suffered  a  greater  than  proportional 
decrease  in  weekly  output.  Discontent  and  indifference  of 
the  workers  and  irregularity  of  attendance  apparently  had 
a  direct  iniluence  upon  production. 

General  Opinion  on  Length  of  Work  Week 

Of  the  44  manufacturers  expressing  an  opinion  as  to  the  most 
satisfactory  work  week  for  this  industry,  two  preferred  a 
55-hour  week;  one  a  55-hour  week  in  winter  and  a  48-hour 
week  in  summer;  21  plants,  approximately  one-half  of  the 
total  number,  preferred  their  previous  schedule  of  54  hours 
per  week;  five  preferred  a  50-hour  week;  and  15  preferred  the 
present  48-hour  week. 

It  was  to  be  expected  that  those  establishments  which  were 
able  to  increase  hourly  output  might  find  the  shorter  work- 
week satisfactory,  and  such  an  attitude  was  shown  by  the 
replies  of  all  but  one  of  these  plants.      It  was  also  true  that 

11 


those  which  suffered  a  decrease  in  hourly  as  well  as  weekly 
output  were  almost  unanimously  opposed  to  the  48-hour 
week.  It  was  interesting  to  note,  however,  that  half  of  those 
establishments  which  experienced  proportional  decrease  in 
weekly  production  favored  the  48-hour  week,  and  half  the 
54-hour  week. 

The  following  reasons  for  preference  of  a  five-day  week  of 
50  hours  were  given  by  one  manufacturer: 

For  some  time  previous  to  being  forced  on  a  48-hour  basis  by  state 
law  we  ran  on  a  50-hour  basis — five  days,  ten  hours,  stopping  all  day 
Saturday.  We  cut  out  one  start  and  one  stop  (always  a  certain  loss). 
We  saved  banking  fires  and  waste  of  steam  for  one  night  per  week. 
We  gained  hours  of  labor,  as  employees  knew  they  would  have  a 
workday  to  themselves  each  week.  There  were  other  numerous  ad- 
vantages, chances  for  repairs,  giving  Sunday  to  the  help,  etc.  The 
help  saved  in  car  fares;  married  women  had  more  time  at  home;  men 
could  work  in  their  gardens  and  have  Sunday  as  a  full  day  of  rest  if 
they  chose;  it  gave  them  two  full  days  if  they  wished  to  go  away. 
We  do  not  believe  in  a  48-hour  six-day  week;  at  least  95%  of  our  help 
would  prefer  the  50-hour  five-day  week. 

The  following  expressions  of  individual  opinion  on  the  hours- 
of-work  problem  in  the  cotton  manufacturing  industry  are 
interesting. 

A  manufacturer  of  cotton  novelties  stated: 

We  have  found  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  workers  prefer  to 
work  more  than  48  hours  a  week,  providing  they  get  extra  pay  for 
the  hours  in  excess  of  the  48.  In  fact,  in  some  departments  we  are 
unable  to  get  a  good  class  of  help  unless  we  give  them  overtime  work. 

An  establishment  manufacturing  fire  hose  and  insulating 
fabric  expressed  this  opinion: 

Our  labor  laws,  being  enforced  to  the  letter,  prohibit  all  overtime 
work,  but  until  conditions  are  normal  and  production  is  up  to  the 
demand,  we  believe  that  it  is  false  economy  and  poor  judgment  to 
do  so. 

A  cotton  cloth  manufacturer  stated: 

We  reduced  our  hours  from  54  to  48  on  February  3,  1919.  There 
was  a  demand,  as  you  know,  all  over  the  east  and  north  for  this 
shorter  week.  We  opposed  it  on  the  ground  that  we  could  not  com- 
pete with  those  states  which  ran  54  to  60  hours,  and  in  some  places 
even  66  hours  a  week,  and  that  we  had  to  sell  our  product  in  the 

23 


same  market  with  these  mills  running  longer  hours.  The  shortening 
of  hours  and  other  contributory  causes  made  such  a  shortage  of 
goods  that  we  have  felt  no  competition  from  any  quarter  up  to  date. 
The  buying  public  has  paid  the  bill  and  will  continue  to  do  so,  I 
feel,  until  such  time  as  there  is  an  increase  of  spindles  and  looms 
sufficient  to  make  up  for  the  loss  of  hours,  and  an  increase  over  the 
pre-war  demand.  Another  thing  that  has  contributed  to  the  high 
cost  of  goods  has  been  the  fancy  wages  paid  mill  operatives,  which 
enabled  them  to  work  fewer  days  per  week  than  formerly,  and  en- 
abled a  very  large  percentage  of  families  who  have  one  or  more  mem- 
bers working  in  the  mill  to  stay  at  home  and  be  supported  by  the 
others. 


24 


IV 

WOOL  MANUFACTURING 

The  investigation  afforded  data  from  61  wool  manufacturing 
establishments,  employing  37,049  workers. 

Changes  in  Work-week  Schedules 

All  establishments  reported  a  reduction  to  a  weekly  schedule 
of  48  hours. 

In  two  plants  this  was  divided  into  a  five-day  week.  In 
one  case  the  change  in  hours  was  accompanied  by  a  change 
from  a  two-shift  to  a  three-shift  day  with  a  full  six-day  week. 
All  other  establishments  reported  a  5>^-day  week,  in  most 
cases  divided  into  8-^4  hours  on  five  days  and  4^  hours  on 
Saturday,  or  8>^  hours  on  five  days  and  473  hour  on  Saturday. 
Six  plants  operated  two  shifts  a  day. 

In  the  majority  of  cases  the  reduction  was  from  a  54-hour 
week  of  5>'2  days.  The  other  establishments  reported  previous 
weekly  schedules  for  men  ranging  from  50  hours  to  60  hours 
per  week;  the  schedules  for  women  in  very  few  cases  exceeded 
54  hours  per  week. 

Changes  in  Output  Accompanying  Reduction  in  Hours 

In  this  industry  no  establishments  reported  that  they  were 
able  to  increase  weekly  output  per  worker  on  a  48-hour  week, 
and  only  one  establishment  reported  that  weekly  output  was 
maintained  under  the  shorter  schedule  of  hours.  The  largest 
group,  including36  establishments,  maintained  the  same  hourly 
output  as  before,  and  therefore  decreased  weekly  output  in 
proportion  to  the  reduction  in  hours.  Twelve  plants  reported 
a  decrease  of  output  less  than  proportional  to  the  reduction 
in  hours,  six  a  greater  than  proportional  decrease,  and  six  a 
decrease  in  amount  not  stated. 

In  the  following  table  are  shown  the  number  of  establish- 
ments and  percentage  of  total  employees  covered  in  the  indus- 
try included  in  each  group  reporting  changes  in  output: 

25 


TABLE  3:  WOOL  MANUFACTURING:  CHANGES  IN  WEEKLY  OUTPUT 
PER  WORKER  ACCOMPANYING  REDUCTION  TO  A  48-HOUR 
SCHEDULE 

(National  Industrial  Conference  Board) 


Changes  In  Output 


Establish- 
ments 
Reporting 


Percentage  of 

Total 
Employees 
in  Group 


Increased     

Maintained 

Decrease,  less  than  proportional  to  the  reduction 
in  hours   •    •    • 

Decrease,  proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours    . 

Decrease,  greater  than  proportional  to  the  reduc- 
tion in  hours 

Decrease,  amount  not  stated 

Total 


0 
1 

12 
36 

6 
6 


61 


0.0 
11.3 

12.9 
51.1 

15.8 
8.9 


100.0 


The  following  diagram  shows  the  changes  in  weekly  output 
reported  by  the  establishments  covered  in  the  wool  manu- 
facturing industry,  by  percentages  of  the  total^ number  oi 
establishments: 

_^ilAI5TAINEI)  -  l.S^ 


Diagram  4:  Changes  in 
Weekly  Output  Per  Worker 
Accompanying  a  Reduction  to 
a  Week,  of  48  Hours  or  Less: 
Wool  Manufacturing. 
61   Establishments 


Analysis  of  Changes  in  Output 


Output  Increased  or  Maintained 

No  establishments  reported  an  increase  of  output  per  worker, 
and  only  one  plant  was  able  to  maintain  previous  weekly  out- 
put on  a  48-hour  weekly  schedule.     The  management  of  this 

26 


establishment,   which    manufactures    felt   hats,    reported    its 
experience  as  follows: 

We  reduced  our  hours  from  60  to  54  about  twelve  years  ago;  then 
from  54  to  52^  about  six  years  ago,  and  from  52J^  to  48  about  two 
years  ago.  Our  production  has  not  suffered  as  a  result.  In  fact, 
in  some  instances  we  do  more  work  on  the  48-hour  basis  than  we 
used  to  do  on  the  60-hour  basis. 

About  two-thirds  of  our  workers  are  on  piecework,  most  of  which 
is  hand  or  partially  hand  operation.  We  employ  about  1,100  girls 
and  3,100  men. 

We  have  less  sickness  and  as  a  whole  the  plant  is  more  efficient. 

In  this  case  the  ability  to  maintain  output  was  due  to  the 
large  amount  of  handwork  involved  in  the  manufacture  of 
this  particular  product,  and,  therefore,  cannot  be  considered 
typical  of  the  wool  manufacturing  industry  as  a  whole. 

Less  than  Proportional  Decrease  in  Output. 

Twelve  of  the  61  plants  reported  a  decrease  in  weekly  out- 
put per  worker  less  than  proportional  to  the  reduction  in 
hours.  These  establishments  were  able  to  increase  hourly  out- 
put, although  not  sufficiently  to  maintain  weekly  production. 
In  four  of  the  twelve  establishments  the  pieceworkers  were 
reported  better  able  to  maintain  production  than  day  workers. 
In  two  of  these  establishments  handwork  output  was  decreased 
less  than  machine  work  output.  Five  establishments  reported 
that  the  workers  were  better  able  to  increase  hourly  output 
in  the  weaving  department  than  in  the  rest  of  the  plant. 
In  three  establishments  bonus  systems  were  employed  to  aid 
production.  A  majority  of  these  establishments  reported 
increased  contentment  on  the  part  of  the  workers  on  the 
shorter  schedule  of  hours. 

One  establishment  manufacturing  worsted  and  cotton 
warp  dress  goods  reported  its  experience  as  follows: 

Our  conclusion  as  to  the  effect  of  the  48-hour  week  in  spinning 
and  weaving  is  that  the  weekly  product  would  be  reduced  very 
closely  in  proportion  to  the  reduction  in  working  hours,  if  conditions 
had  remained  the  same.  We  have,  however,  made  changes  in  both 
of  these  departments  which  have  somewhat  reduced  this  loss  in 
production  per  unit. 

In  these  departments  where  hand  labor  predominates,  and  where 
piecework  has  been  incentive  to  production,  we  find  that  the  pro- 
duction in  48  hours  has  shown  a  better  rate  per  hour  than  during 
the  50-hour  week. 

27 


Our  production  is  limited  more  by  the  short  week  in  spinning  than 
in  any  other  department.  We  require  women  and  younger  help 
in  this  department  and  cannot,  under  the  present  laws,  operate  on 
a  double  shift. 

On  the  items  of  health,  accidents,  and  contentment  of  workers, 
our  figures  and  general  observation  lead  us  to  report  no  marked 
change.  There  is  a  condition  of  restlessness  among  employees  which 
has  been  noticeable  since  the  war.  There  is  also  an  improved  moral 
and  physical  well-being,  attributable,  we  believe,  to  the  combina- 
tion of  high  wages  and  prohibition. 

All  things  considered,  we  feel  that  if  we  had  a  sufficient  supply 
of  help  to  run  our  equipment  we  could  secure  an  efficiency  from  it 
which  would  recover  somewhat  the  loss  due  to  reduction  in  hours 
from  54 — perhaps  half  of  that  loss. 

A  small  establishment,  manufacturing  bed  blankets,  with 
30%  pieceworkers,  reported: 

The  effects  of  the  change  in  hours  were  most  noticeable  in  the 
weaving  room,  which  sets  the  pace  for  the  rest  of  the  mill.  Loss  of 
production  here  reduced  the  amount  of  work  for  the  other  depart- 
ments. Average  working  hours  were  reduced  12.63%  with  increase 
of  about  4%  in  pieceworkers'  efficiency.  The  result  was  a  net  loss 
of  9.5%  in  weekly  output  for  the  same  working  force,  in  spite  of 
increased  wages. 

In  the  woolen  dress  goods  manufacturing  establishment 
whose  statement  follows,  the  pieceworkers,  who  constituted 
50%  of  the  working  force,  were  able  to  greatly  increase 
production. 

Since  April  1st,  1919,  we  have  been  working  48  hours  per  week, 
against  55  hours  before. 

Our  records  show  that  all  departments  working  on  piece-rates 
show  an  increase  of  12  to  18%  over  the  55  hours  period,  while  depart- 
ments working  on  hourly  basis  are  behind. 

The  improvement  in  production  in  1919  did  not  start  at  once  after 
the  strike,  but  in  June  and  July  it  was  noticeable.  We  are  convinced 
that  shorter  hours  make  pieceworkers  stick  more  to  their  work, 
while  day  workers  are  more  lazy  than  ever.  A  lot  of  time  was  spent 
formerly  by  our  pieceworkers  in  corridors  and  dressing  rooms  arguing 
and  chatting,  but  this  is  greatly  reduced  now. 

Proportional  Decrease  in  Output. 

A  majority  of  the  plants  studied  suffered  a  decrease  in 
weekly  output  approximately  proportional  to  the  reduction 
in  hours.    In  this  group  were  36  establishments. 

28 


In  two  cases  piecework  output  was  decreased  less  than  in 
proportion  to  the  reduction  in  hours,  but  the  average  decrease 
in  output  was  proportional. 

In  only  a  few  establishments  were  certain  departments 
mentioned  as  especially  affected  by  the  reduction  in  hours. 
These  departments  were  weaving,  spinning,  winding,  spooling, 
and  finishing.  Most  establishments  reported  a  general  de- 
crease throughout  all  departments.  It  is  noteworthy  that  one 
establishment  reported  a  temporary  increase  in  hourly  output. 

A  majority  of  the  establishments  reported  no  change  in  the 
attitude  of  the  workers. 

A  woolen  manufacturing  plant  reported: 

Our  weekly  output  on  a  48-hour  week  is  directly  proportional 
to  the  output  of  a  54-hour  week,  for  the  reasons  that  our  producing 
units  are  machines  and  the  efficiency  of  the  operators  is  watched 
very  carefully.    Hour  for  hour  there  has  been  no  change  in  our  output. 

A  manufacturer  of  worsted  cloth  stated: 

Our  experience  does  not  show  that  there  is  any  greater  content- 
ment of  the  operatives,  neither  is  there  any  increase  in  production 
per  hour  through  the  reduced  weekly  schedule  of  hours. 

A  woolen  and  worsted  goods  manufacturing  establishment 
reported  that  production  was  temporarily  increased,  but  soon 
dropped  to  the  previous  level. 

Upon  the  start  of  the  48-hour  week,  after  conference  with  our  em- 
ployees, they  agreed  that  the  48  hours  should  be  48  hours  work, 
with  no  time  for  cleaning  up  or  anything  of  the  kind.  This  worked 
all  right  for  a  few  weeks  and  the  workers  showed  increased  efficiency. 
In  spite  of  our  efforts,  however,  output  soon  dropped  back  to  the 
old  basis,  and  there  is  a  little  less,  if  any,  difference  in  efficiency 
under  the  48  hours. 

A  manufacturer  of  men's  woolen  suitings  reported  the 
following  experience: 

We  went  on  a  48-hour  a  week  schedule  last  June  (1919),  when 
the  48-hour  law  was  put  into  effect,  and  we  found  that  our  produc- 
tion was  reduced  practically  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  hours 
loss  in  working  time.  In  fact,  in  several  cases,  rather  than  showing 
an  increased  production  per  worker,  the  employees  seemed  to  be 
a  trifle  more  easygoing  and  our  general  production  suffered  to  a  small 
degree. 

An  establishment  which  changed  from  a  two-shift  to  a 
three-shift  schedule  at  the  time  of  the  reduction  in  hours  re- 
ported as  follows: 

29 


The  writer  personally  feels  that  the  change  has  been  a  very  wise 
one  and  our  employees  appear  less  fatigued  than  they  formerly  did.  . 
So  far  as  production  is  concerned,  this  has  not  increased  per  man 
per  hour,  but  we  are  certain  that  if  our  employees  were  so  disposed,  a 
large  increase  would  be  possible  without  any  undue  strain  on  our 
help.  We  are  experiencing  the  same  difficulty  that  all  employers  of 
labor  are  experiencing  at  present — a  disinclination  of  workmen  to 
permit  increase  in  production.  We  have  not  as  yet  found  a  method 
to  overcome  this  and  bring  our  plant  to  the  high  point  of  efficiency 
which  present  operating  conditions  would  warrant. 

A  manufacturer  of  woolen  fabrics  stated: 

The  reduction  of  the  working  hours  forming  the  basic  week  is  in 
most  cases  simply  tantamount  to  a  raising  of  wages.  Mills  continue 
to  work  the  number  of  hours  required  by  the  exigencies  of  their 
business,  and  the  chief  difference  caused  by  the  adoption  of  the 
48-hour  week  is  to  give  workers  overtime  for  an  increased  number  of 
hours. 

Greater  than  Proportional  Decrease  in  Output. 

Six  establishments  suffered  a  decrease  in  hourly  as  well  as 
weekly  output.  In  practically  every  case  the  effects  of  the 
reduction  in  hours  were  especially  noticeable  in  either  the 
spinning  or  weaving  departments.  One  establishment  re- 
ported the  change  from  government  to  civil  contracts  as  a 
reason  for  the  large  decrease  in  output. 

Report  of  a  decrease  in  hourly  output  was  generally  accom- 
panied by  a  report  of  increased  dissatisfaction  and  indifference 
on  the  part  of  the  workers. 

An  establishment  manufacturing  ladies'  worsted  dress  goods 
reported: 

PrevaiHng  shortage  of  help,  shorter  hours  and  larger  earnings 
seem  to  have  lessened  the  spirit  of  cooperation  and  sense  of  personal 
responsibility  on  the  part  of  many  workers,  and  an  attitude  of  in- 
difference and  independence  is  becoming  increasingly  apparent. 

Another  establishment  stated: 

Our  experience  with  help  is  that  they  are  constantly  asking  for 
increased  wages,  and  as  we  are  paying  as  high  or  higher  rates  than 
most  textile  mills  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  grant  further  increases. 
However,  the  dissatisfaction  is  there  and  we  are  at  a  loss  to  remedy  it. 

Decreased  in  Output — Amount  Not  Stated 

Six  of  the  61  establishments  reported  a  decrease  in  produc- 
tion, but  did  not  state  the  amount  of  such  decrease. 

30 


Conclusions  for  Wool  Manufacturing 

1.  Owing  to  the  predominance  of  machine  processes  in 
the  wool  manufacturing  industry,  no  establishment  was  able 
to  increase  previous  weekly  output,  and  only  one  establish- 
ment was  able  to  maintain  previous  weekly  output  on  a  48- 
hour  schedule.  The  one  plant  which  maintained  weekly 
output  was  a  hat  manufacturing  establishment  in  which 
handwork  predominated  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  in 
ordinary  wool  manufacturing. 

2.  That  the  efficiency  of  the  worker  influenced  production 
to  a  certain  extent,  however,  was  shown  by  the  fact  that  a 
small  number  of  establishments  were  able  to  increase  hourly 
output  in  certain  processes. 

3.  In  a  small  number  of  plants  pieceworkers  were  reported 
better  able  to  increase  hourly  output  than  day  workers. 

4.  The  morale  of  the  workers  seemed  to  have  had  a  definite 
relation  to  the  maintenance  of  output.  Those  plants  which 
were  able  to  increase  hourly  output,  in  most  cases  reported 
increased  contentment  on  the  part  of  the  workers.  On  the 
other  hand,  most  of  those  establishments  which  decreased 
hourly  output  reported  that  the  workers  were  less  contented 
after  the  reduction  in  hours. 

General  Opinion  on  Length  of  Work  Week 

The  majority  of  statements  of  individual  manufacturers 
showed  a  preference  for  the  54-  or  55-hour  week  of  5^  days, 
which  in  practically  every  case  was  the  previous  schedule  of 
these  plants.  Only  three  establishments  expressed  a  preference 
for  a  longer  week  than  55  hours.  A  number  of  establishments 
reported  that  the  48-hour  week  was  satisfactory,  but  in  several 
cases  qualified  this  statement  by  the  requirement  that  it  be 
made  national,  or  that  it  be  divided  into  a  five-day  week. 
Five  plants  favored  a  50-hour  week. 

In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  none  of  those 
plants  which  were  able  to  increase  hourly  output  on  the  48- 
hour  week  expressed  a  preference  for  it. 

31 


A  concern  manufacturing  men's  woolen  suitings  stated: 

The  chief  essential  in  our  business  seems  to  be  to  have  a  national 
or  standardized  working  day  for  all  mills  in  competitive  lines  of 
work.  It  is  very  hard  for  those  who  work  eight  hours  a  day  to  com- 
pete with  manufacturers  in  other  parts  of  the  country  who  are  al- 
lowed to  work  ten  hours  per  day. 

A  worsted  manufacturer  reported: 

We  are  unable  to  detect  any  material  change  in  the  health  of  our 
operatives  since  we  reduced  our  hours  to  forty-eight  and,  frankly, 
we  feel  that  a  large  proportion  of  our  operatives  would  be  perfectly 
willing  to  work  fifty-four  hours,  thereby  increasing  their  income. 

An  establishment  manufacturing  cotton-warp  suitings  ex- 
pressed the  following  opinion: 

Our  judgment  is  that  a  50-hour  week  would  be  the  most  practical 
for  all  concerned,  with  nine  hours  each  day  and  five  hours  on  Sat- 
urday. The  present  working  hours  make  it  practically  useless  to 
run  anything  on  Saturdays.  It  does  not  pay  to  start  up  for  anything 
less  than  five  hours  on  that  day. 

An  establishment  manufacturing  worsted  and  cotton  warp 
dress  goods  stated: 

We  would  like  to  have  the  week  extended  to  50  hours  to  make 
an  even  nine  hour  day  and  five  hours  on  Saturday,  which  would  make 
this  half  day  worth  while.  Saturday  on  present  hours  is  a  serious 
problem  for  us.  .  .  .  We  believe  that  a  loss  in  efficiency  of  the 
worker  results  from  extending  the  day  beyond  nine  hours. 

Two  Massachusetts  establishments  operating  on  a  5^-day 
week  stated  a  preference  for  a  five-day  week  under  the  present 
hours.  One  of  these  establishments  made  the  following 
comment: 

The  law  we  now  have  prohibiting  the  employment  of  women  more 
than  nine  hours  in  any  one  day  prevents  stopping  Saturday  morning. 
But  for  this  we  would  work  48  hours  in  five  days  and  stop  Saturday 
entirely.     It  would  pay  from  an  economic  point  of  view. 


32 


V 

SILK  MANUFACTURING 

Data  for  this  industry  cover  23  silk  manufacturing  establish- 
ments, employing  8,884  workers. 

Changes  in  Work-week  Schedules 

Fourteen  of  the  establishments  reduced  to  a  schedule  of 
48  hours  per  week,  and  nine  establishments  reduced  to  a  44- 
hour  schedule. 

In  all  cases  a  one-shift  day  and  a  5^-day  week  were  reported. 
In  the  establishments  operating  on  a  44-hour  schedule,  the 
week  was  divided  into  five  days  of  eight  hours  each  and  four 
hours  on  Saturday.  All  but  one  of  those  operating  on  a  48- 
hour  schedule  reported  five  days  of  8^4  hours  each  and  4>^ 
hours  on  Saturday. 

The  plants  in  the  48-hour  group  reduced  from  a  weekly 
schedule  ranging  from  50  to  55  hours,  and  those  in  the  44- 
hour  group  from  a  schedule  of  from  48  to  50  hours. 

In  no  case  was  a  previous  schedule  of  more  than  a  one-shift 
day  or  a  5^-day  week  reported. 

Changes  in  Output  Accompanying  Reduction  in  Hours 

Of  the  total  number  of  establishments  none  were  able  to 
increase  weekly  output,  and  only  one  was  able  to  maintain 
weekly  output.  Four  establishments  reported  an  increase  in 
hourly  output,  which  was,  however,  not  sufficient  to  offset 
the  reduction  in  hours.  Eleven  establishments  reported  a 
proportional  decrease  in  weekly  output,  and  three  establish- 
ments suffered  a  greater  than  proportional  decrease  in  weekly 
output.  Four  establishments  decreased  weekly  output  but 
did  not  state  the  amount  of  decrease. 

The  following  table  presents  the  number  of  establishments 
and  the  percentage  of  employees  in  each  group  reporting 
changes  in  output  on  reduction  to  a  week  of  48  hours  or  less: 

33 


TABLE  4:  SILK  MANUFACTURING:  CHANGES  IN  WEEKLY  OUTPUT 
PER  WORKER  ACCOMPANYING  REDUCTION  TO  A  WEEK  OF 
48  HOURS  OR  LESS 

(National  Industrial  Conference  Board) 


Changes  In  Output 

Establish- 
ments 
Reporting 

Percentage 
of  Total 

Employees 
in  Group 

Increased     

Maintained 

Decrease,  less  than  proportional  to  the  reduction 
in  hours 

Decrease,  proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours   . 

Decrease,  greater  than  proportional  to  the  reduc- 
tion in  hours ... 

0 
1 

4 
11 

3 
4 

0.0 
1.1 

8.5 
81.0a 

4-9 

4.56 

Decrease,  amount  not  stated 

Total 

23 

100.06 

"This  group  includes  one  large  plant  with  over  one-half  of  total  employees. 
60ne  establishment  did  not  report  number  of  employees. 

The  changes   in  weekly  output  for  all   the  establishments 
covered  in  this  industry  are  shown  also  in  the  following  diagram: 


Diagram  5:  Changes  in 
Weekly  Output  Per  Worker 
Accompanying  a  Reduction  to 
A  Week  of  48  Hours  or  Less: 
Silk  Manufacturing. 

23  Establishments 


KAIKTAIHED 


4.8-Hour  Week. 

The  changes  in  weekly  output  accompanying  the  reduction 
to  a  48-hour  week,  and  the  number  of  plants  and  percentage 
of  total  employees  affected  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 

34 


TABLE  5:  SILK  MANUFACTURING:  CHANGES  IN  WEEKLY  OUTPUT 
PER  WORKER  ACCOMPANYING  REDUCTION  TO  A  48-HOUR 
SCHEDULE 

(National  Industrial  Conference  Board) 


Changes  In  Output 

Establish- 
ments 
Reporting 

Percentage 
of  Total 

Employees 
in  Group 

Increased     

Maintained                                                

0 
0 

2 

7 

.;.! 
1 
4 

0.0 
0.0 

Decrease,  less  than  proportional  to  the  reduction 
in  hours 

3.4 

Decrease,  proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours    . 
Decrease,  greater  than  proportional  to  the  reduc- 
tion in  hours 

Decrease,  amount  not  stated 

89.50 

1.7 
5.46 

Total 

14 

100.06 

''This  group  included  one  large  plant  with  over  one-half  of  total  employees. 
60ne  establishment  did  not  report  number  of  employees. 


44-Hour  Week. 

Changes  in  weekly  output  accompanying  the  reduction  to 
a  44-hour  week  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 


TABLE  6:  SILK  MANUFACTURING:  CHANGES  IN  WEEKLY  OUTPUT 
PER  WORKER  ACCOMPANYING  REDUCTION  TO  A  44-HOUR 
SCHEDULE 

(National  Industrial  Conference  Board) 


Changes  In  Output 

Establish- 
ments 
Reporting 

Percentage 
of  Total 

Employees 
in  Group 

Increased     

Maintained 

0 

1 

2 
4 

2 
0 

0.0 
5.9 

Decrease,  less  than  proportional  to  the  reduction 
in  hours 

32.0 

Decrease,  proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours   . 
Decrease,  greater  than  proportional  to  the  reduc- 
tion in  hours 

Decrease,  amount  not  stated 

42.5 

19.6 
0.0 

Total 

9 

100.0 

35 


Analysis  of  Changes  in  Output 
Output  Increased  or  Maintained 

No  plant  in  this  industry  was  able  to  increase  weekly  out- 
put. One  dress  and  tie  silk  manufacturing  establishment 
maintained  practically  the  same  weekly  output  on  the  shorter 
schedule  of  hours,  but  also  reported  a  slightly  inferior 
quality   of    production. 

The  management  of  this  establishment  furnished  the 
following  figures  to  illustrate  the  experience  with  reduced 
working  hours: 

Our  hourly  output  was  increased  with  the  shortening  of  the  work- 
day, as  follows:  During  a  period  of  50  hours  per  week  the  output  per 
weaver  was  198  yards  per  pay  of  two  weeks;  during  a  period  of  47 
hours  per  week  the  output  per  weaver  was  198  yards  per  pay  of  two 
weeks;  during  a  period  of  48  hours  per  week  the  output  per  weaver  was 
218  yards  per  pay  of  two  weeks;  and  during  a  period  of  44  hours  per 
week  the  output  per  weaver  was  213  yards  per  pay  of  two  weeks. 
The  difference  in  the  output  of  the  day  workers  between  48  or  50 
hours  per  week  and  44  hours  per  week  is  a  decrease  of  hardly  2%. 

Although  these  figures  point  to  the  influence  on  production 
of  other  factors  than  the  reduction  in  hours,  it  is  clear  that  this 
plant  was  able  to  do  practically  the  same  amount  of  work  in 
44  hours  as  on  the  longer  weekly  schedule. 

Less  than  Proportional  Decrease  in  Output. 

Four  of  the  23  silk  manufacturing  establishments  increased 
hourly  output  and  thus  decreased  weekly  output  less  than  in 
proportion  to  the  reduction  in  hours.  Two  of  these  establish- 
ments were  in  the  48-hour  group  and  two  in  the  44-hour  group. 

In  two  cases  there  was  a  decrease  of  machine-work  output 
but  a  maintenance  of  handwork  output.  In  one  case  there 
was  a  decrease  of  daywork  output,  but  a  maintenance  of  piece- 
work output.  In  the  other  case  practically  the  same  decrease 
was  noted  for  both  handwork  and  machine-work  output. 

The  proportion  of  pieceworkers  in  these  plants  was  high. 
Two  establishments  had  90%  pieceworkers,  and  the  other 
two  reported  that  71%  and  60%  of  their  employees,  respec- 
tively, were  on  a  piece-rate  basis. 

Two  of  the  four  establishments  reported  a  decrease  in  the 
quality  of  production. 

36 


Proportional  Decrease  in  Output. 

Eleven  of  the  23  establishments  reported  a  decrease  In 
weekly  output  proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours. 

Seven  of  these  establishments  were  in  the  48-hour  group  and 
four  in  the  44-hour  group. 

In  no  case  was  any  definite  differentiation  made  between 
handwork  and  machine-work  output,  or  between  piecework 
or  daywork  output.  Although  two  establishments  reported 
that  the  effects  of  the  reduction  in  hours  were  most  noticeable 
in  the  weaving  department,  in  most  cases  a  general  decrease 
in  production  throughout  the  plant  was  noted. 

Practically  all  the  establishments  in  this  group  reported 
no  change  in  the  attitude  of  the  workers. 

The  largest  silk  manufacturing  establishment  included  in 
this  investigation,  employing  4582  workers,  reported  the  re- 
sults of  its  experience  with  the  shorter  schedule  of  hours, 
as  follows: 

Where  we  have  made  studies  with  relation  to  the  effect  of  decreased 
hours  upon  the  product  of  a  definite  quality  from  specific  individuals 
and  looms,  we  have  found  that  the  product  per  hour  stayed  almost 
practically  constant  and  that  the  product  per  day  varied  in  almost 
direct  ratio  to  the  hours  worked. 

Our  plant  is  operating,  and  has  been  for  some  time,  upon  a  task 
and  bonus  system.  We  have  not  found  it  practical  in  any  case  of 
machine  operation  to  increase  the  task  per  hour  because  of  a  decrease 
in  the  number  of  hours  worked. 

Another  manufacturer  reported  a  similar  experience: 

We  can  give  only  average  results.  For  the  last  six  months  of  1919  an 
equal  number  of  looms  working  48  hours  per  week  produced  11.2% 
less  than  while  working  under  54  hours  schedule  on  the  same  class 
of  goods.  In  other  departments  the  results  are  substantially  the 
same,  except  in  rare  cases  where  an  operative  working  on  piecework 
has  shown  less  loss  in  production. 

Greater  than  Proportional  Decrease  in  Output. 

Three  establishments  reported  a  decrease  in  weekly  out- 
put greater  than  proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours,  or 
a  decrease  in  hourly  as  well  as  weekly  output.  One  of  these 
establishments  was  in  the  48-hour  group  and  two  were  in  the 
44-hour  group. 

37 


9.1907 


In  the  two  plants  in  the  44-hour  group  the  decrease  in 
hourly  output  was  small;  that  is,  the  decrease  in  weekly  output 
was  very  little  greater  than  proportional  to  the  reduction  in 
hours.  In  neither  case  was  any  explanation  of  this  reduction 
in  hourly  output  given. 

Though  it  is  impossible  to  draw  any  general  conclusions 
regarding  this  group  of  establishments,  it  is  interesting  to 
note  that  one  establishment  gave  as  a  reason  for  the  decreased 
production  the  labor  shortage  and  the  consequently  lowered 
efficiency  of  the  workers. 

Decrease  in  Output — Amount  Not  Stated. 

Four  establishments  reported  a  decrease  in  output,  but  did 
not  state  the  amount  of  such  decrease.  These  plants  were  all 
in  the  48-hour  group. 

With  the  exception  of  one  case,  where  there  was  a  change 
from  government  to  civil  contracts,  with  a  necessarily  different 
style  of  goods,  no  outstanding  characteristics  were  reported 
by  any  of  these  plants. 

Conclusions  for  Silk  Manufacturing 

1.  From  the  experience  of  the  plants  studied  it  was  evi- 
dent that  the  time  lost  in  reduction  to  48  hours  or  44  hours 
per  week  was  too  great  to  be  overcome  except  in  unusual  cases. 
None  of  the  23  silk  manufacturing  establishments  studied  was 
able  to  increase  weekly  output,  and  only  one  establishment 
was  able  to  maintain  weekly  output. 

2.  This  was  due  to  the  predominance  of  machine  processes, 
though  not  to  the  same  extent  as  in  cotton  or  wool  manufactur- 
ing. That  silk  manufacturing  involves  a  certain  amount  of 
handwork  was  indicated  by  the  fact  that  one  plant  increased 
hourly  output  sufficiently  to  wholly  compensate  for  the 
reduction  in  hours,  and  in  three  other  establishments  certain 
departments  were  able  to  maintain  previous  weekly  output. 
In  all  of  these  establishments,  however,  a  lowering  of  the 
quality  of  production  was  reported. 

38 


3.  The  proportion  of  pieceworkers  in  the  plants  studied 
was  very  high,  on  the  whole  (67.4%),  but  there  was  no  definite 
relation  between  the  number  of  pieceworkers  in  a  plant  and  the 
ability  of  that  plant  to  maintain  production.  It  was  perhaps 
significant  that  the  two  plants  having  the  greatest  number  of 
employees  on  a  piece-rate  basis,  90%  in  each  case,  were  in 
the  group  of  those  plants  which  reported  a  less  than  propor- 
tional decrease  in  weekly  output.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
plant  which  maintained  weekly  output  reported  only  50% 
pieceworkers. 

4.  Those  plants  reporting  approximately  proportional 
decrease  in  output  reported  also,  in  practically  every  case,  no 
change  in  the  attitude  of  the  workers.  The  one  establishment 
which  reported  a  substantial  decrease  in  hourly  output  gave 
as  the  reason  the  lowered  discipline  of  workers  accompanying 
the  labor  shortage.  Those  establishments  reporting  that 
weekly  output  was  maintained  ordecreased  less  than  in  propor- 
tion to  the  reduction  in  hours,  reported  either  no  change  or 
an  increase  in  the  contentment  of  the  workers. 

5.  The  size  of  the  plant  had  no  apparent  relation  to  its 
ability  to  maintain  output.  The  largest  plant,  thoroughly 
organized,  decreased  production  in  proportion  to  reduction 
in  hours.     In  all  groups  the  size  of  the  plants  varied  widely. 

General  Opinion  on  Length  of  Work  Week 

Only  17  of  the  23  establishments  expressed  an  opinion  as 
to  the  best  length  of  work  week  for  the  industry.  These  replies 
varied  markedly.  Seven  preferred  a  48-hour  week,  three  a 
44-hour  week  and  the  remaining  seven  preferred  a  50-hour 
week  or  more. 

The  following  quotation  expressed  the  attitude  of  one 
manufacturer  of  broad  silks: 

We  favor  the  44-hour  week  so  long  as  we  can  have  it  in  the  entire 
industry.  The  great  drawback  at  the  present  time  is  that  in  Penn- 
sylvania, where  a  lot  of  silk  goods  are  manufactured,  the  mills  are 
working  from  50  to  60  hours  per  week.  This  longer  work  week  is  also 

39 


in  efFect  in  the  states  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut.  When 
business  enters  into  more  normal  conditions  we  will  either  have  to 
increase  our  working  week  to  50  hours  or  the  other  states  will  have 
to  come  down  to  44  hours,  or  New  Jersey  will  have  to  give  up  making 
silks,  as  it  will  not  be  in  a  position  to  compete.  So  long  as  silk  goods 
are  manufactured  in  the  different  states  but  sold  in  the  same  market, 
the  working  hours  and  wages  should  be  standardized  in  the  entire 
industry. 

A  manufacturer  of  silk  thread  and  braids  stated: 

If  it  were  possible  for  people  not  working  on  machines  to  do  as 
much  work  in  eight  hours  as  they  could  in  nine  or  ten,  we  would,  of 
course,  be  very  much  in  favor  of  the  shorter  working  day  and  the  extra 
leisure  time  it  would  afford  employees.  However,  when  this  reduc- 
tion of  hours  is  made  up  in  increased  cost,  decreased  production  and 
poorer  quality,  we  are  not  in  favor  of  it. 


40 


VI 

BOOT  AND  SHOE  MANUFACTURING 

Data  were  obtained  from  88  boot  and  shoe  manufacturing 
establishments,  employing  65,162  workers. 

Changes  in  Work-week  Schedules 

Of  these  establishments,  52  reduced  to  48  hours  per  week, 
one  to  47  hours,  30  to  45  hours  and  five  to  44  hours. 

The  48-hour  week  was  in  every  instance  a  Sj^-day  week. 
The  45-hour  week  was  in  all  cases  divided  into  a  five-day  week. 
The  44-hour  week  was  divided  into  5^  days,  eight  hours  on 
five  days  and  four  hours  on  Saturday.  No  establishment 
reported  more  than  a  one-shift  day,  and  in  all  cases  either  a 
Saturday  half-holiday  or  full-holiday  was  reported. 

The  previous  work-week  schedules  ranged  from  48  hours 
to  59  hours  per  week,  with  the  50-hour  week  predominating. 
The  establishments  operating  on  a  48-hour  schedule  in  most 
cases  reduced  from  54,  52^  or  50  hours  per  week.  The  estab- 
lishments operating  on  a  45-hour  schedule  in  most  instances 
reduced  from  55,  54,  50  or  48  hours  per  week. 

Changes  in  Output  Accompanying  Reduction  in  Hours 

Of  all  the  establishments  covered  in  this  industry  three 
were  able  to  increase  weekly  output,  13  maintained  weekly 
output,  and  72  decreased  weekly  output.  Of  those  decreasing 
weekly  output,  10  increased  hourly  output,  but  not  sufficiently 
to  offset  the  loss  in  working  time;  22  maintained  hourly  out- 
put, but  decreased  weekly  output  in  proportion  to  the  reduc- 
tion in  hours,  and  18  decreased  hourly  as  well  as  weekly  output. 
The  remaining  establishments  did  not  state  the  amount  of 
decrease. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  establishments  and 
the  percentage  of  the  total  employees  in  all  establishments  in- 
cluded in  each  group  reporting  changes  in  output: 

41 


TABLE  7:  BOOT  AND  SHOE  MANUFACTURING:  CHANGES  IN 
WEEKLY  OUTPUT  PER  WORKER  ACCOMPANYING  REDUCTION 
TO  A  WEEKLY  SCHEDULE  OF  48  HOURS  OR  LESS 

(National  Industrial  Conference  Board) 


Changes  In  Output 

Establish- 
ments 
Reporting 

Percentage 
of  Total 

Employees 
in  Group 

Increased     

3 
13 

10 

22 

18 
22 

29.9 

Maintained 

15.2 

Decrease,  less  than  proportional  to  the  reduction 
in  hours 

17.5 

Decrease,  proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours    . 
Decrease,  greater  than  proportional  to  the  reduc- 
tion in  hours 

Decrease,  amount  not  stated 

13.2 

11.0 
13.2 

Total 

88 

100.0 

The  changes  in  output  for  the  total  number  of  establish- 
ments are  shown  in  the  following  diagram: 


^INCHEASED 


Diagram  6:  Changes  in 
Weekly  Output  Per  Worker 
Accompanying  a  Reduction  to 
a  Week  of  48  Hours  or  Less: 
Boot  and  Shoe  Man  ufacturing. 
88  Establishments 


4.8 -Hour  Week. 

Changes  in  output  in  this  group  of  establishments  are  shown 
in  detail  in  the  following  table: 

42 


TABLE  8:  BOOT  AND  SHOE  MANUFACTURING:  CHANGES  IN  WEEK- 
LY    OUTPUT     PER     WORKER     ACCOMPANYING    REDUCTION    TO 
.,  A  48-HOUR  SCHEDULE 

(National  Industrial  Conference  Board) 


Changes  In  Output 

Establish- 
ments 
Reporting 

Percentage 
of  Total 

Employees 
in  Group 

Increased     

Maintained 

3a 
10 

6 

13 

7 
14 

39.0 
8.8 

Decrease,  less  than  proportional  to  the  reduction 
in  hours 

19.3 

Decrease,  proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours   . 
Decrease,  greater  than  proportional  to  the  reduc- 
tion in  hours 

11.3 
8.4 

Decrease,  amount  not  stated 

13.2 

Total 

53'! 

100.0 

''This  figure  includes  one  plant  operating  on  a  47-hour  schedule. 

45-Hour  Week. 

The  changes  in  output  in  this  group  of  establishments  are 
shown  in  the  following  table: 

TABLE  9:  BOOT  AND  SHOE  MANUFACTURING:  CHANGES  IN  WEEK- 
LY OUTPUT  PER  WORKER  ACCOMPANYING  REDUCTION  TO  A 
45-HOUR  SCHEDULE 

(National  Industrial  Conference  Board) 


Changes  In  Output 

Establish- 
ments 
Reporting 

Percentage 
of  Total 

Employees 
in  Group 

Increased     

Maintained 

0 
3 

2 
8 

10 

7 

0.0 
42  6 

Decrease,  less  than  proportional  to  the  reduction 
in  hours 

1.9 

Decrease,  proportional  to  the"reduction  in  hours   . 
Decrease,  greater  than  proportional  to  the  reduc- 
tion in  hours  .    . 

19.9 

22  7 

Decrease,  amount  not  stated 

12.9 

Total 

30 

100.0 

44-Hour  Week. 

Changes  in   output  for  establishments  in  this   group   are 
shown  in  the  following  table: 

43 


TABLE  10:  BOOT  AND  SHOE  MANUFACTURING:  CHANGES  IN 
WEEKLY  OUTPUT  PER  WORKER  ACCOMPANYING  REDUCTION 
TO  A  44-HOUR  SCHEDULE 

(National  Industrial  Conference  Board) 


Changes  In  Output 

EstabHsh- 

ments 
Reporting 

Percentage 
of  Total 

Employees 
in  Group 

Increased     

Maintained 

0 
0 

2 
1 

1 
1 

0.0 
0  0 

Decrease,  less  than  proportional  to  the  reduction 
in  hours 

49.0 

Decrease,  proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours    . 
Decrease,  greater  than  proportional  to  the  reduc- 
tion in  hours 

24.7 
4.6 

Decrease,  amount  not  stated 

21.7 

Total 

5 

100.0 

Analysis  of  Changes  in  Output 
Output  Increased. 

Of  the  plants  which  were  able  to  increase  weekly  output 
after  reducing  their  hours  of  work,  one  was  operating  on  a 
47-hour  schedule  and  two  were  operating  on  a  48-hour  schedule. 
The  plant  operating  on  a  47-hour  schedule  was  a  compara- 
tively small  establishment,  which  reported  its  experience  as 
follows: 

Until  the  middle  of  May,  1919,  we  had  been  running  on  the  54- 
hour  schedule.  Our  records  of  the  week  of  May  10th  show  that  we 
employed  168  people  and  got  an  average  production  of  7,525  pairs. 
A  week  or  two  later,  we  voluntarily  changed  to  the  45^4^  hour  basis, 
knowing  that  we  would,  by  the  middle  of  August,  be  obliged  to  go  on 
a  48-hour  schedule,  due  to  the  fact  that  we  cannot  work  our  men 
employees  without  the  women,  and  Massachusetts  laws  would  allow 
but  48  hours  of  work  for  women.  This  change  to  45J4^  hours  was  in 
the  nature  of  a  trial,  to  be  continued  on  condition  that  we  got  as  much 
work  from  our  employees  on  this  basis  as  formerly. 

Our  records  for  the  week  of  July  12th  show  that  202  employees 
produced  9,487  pairs,  which  was  about  a  5%  increase.  However,  this 
production  later  dropped  to  around  8,000  pairs.  We  e.xplain  this  by 
saying  that  for  the  first  few  weeks  our  employees  showed  great  inter- 
est in  getting  out  as  much  work  in  45  hours  as  formerly.  Later  this 
interest  declined,  with  a  corresponding  decline  in  production.  We  then 
went  definitely  on  a  47-hour  basis  some  time  in  September.  Our  rec- 
ords for  the  week  of  October  11th  show  that  we  had  a  production  of 
10,488  pairs. 

44 


From  these  records  we  are  convinced  that  a  48-hour  schedule  will 
produce  as  much  as  a  54-hour  schedule,  owing  to  the  fact  that  em- 
ployees are  inclined  to  loaf  for  the  last  hour  or  two  each  day  on  the 
longer  schedule,  whereas  they  try  to  clean  up  if  they  know  that  their 
time  is  limited  and  if  they  are  working  on  a  piece  basis.  Ninety  per 
cent  of  our  employees  are  pieceworkers.  Our  experience  is  illumin- 
ating only  so  far  as  piecework  goes.  We  believe  that  the  same  results 
would  not  be  obtained  under  a  week-work  plan. 

Upon  reducing  the  work  hours  some  20%  we  found  it  necessary  to 
increase  the  pay  correspondingly  or  about  20%  for  most  week-work- 
ers and  pieceworkers.  Our  production,  of  course,  did  not  increase 
20%,  so  that  the  net  result  was  that  we  got  a  slightly  increased  pro- 
duction, but  we  paid  more  in  wages  than  the  5%  increase  we  got  in 
production.  On  the  other  hand  we  had  a  contented  force  of  employ- 
ees, for  which  benefit  we  figure  we  are  paying  the  increased  price, 
particularly  as  raises  all  along  the  line  were  the  order  of  the  day  at  that 
season. 

The  figures  quoted,  of  October  11th,  hold  approximately  true  today 
as  to  the  number  of  employees  and  production. 

The  other  two  plants  in  the  48-hour  group  which  were 
able  to  increase  production  were  very  large  establishments. 

The  management  of  one  large  company,  which  reported 
over  90%  pieceworkers,  estimated  the  increase  in  weekly 
output  per  worker  at  5%,  and  stated  further: 

Production  is  influenced  by  weather,  transportation,  supplies,  dif- 
ferences in  material  used,  style  and  class  of  goods,  methods  of  man- 
agement, morale  and  many  other  conditions. 

The  other  plant  reporting  an  increase  in  weekly  output 
employed  16,009  workers,  of  whom  over  80%  were  on  a  piece- 
rate  basis.    This  manufacturer  stated: 

Production  has  increased  as  compared  with  pre-war  activities. 
Before  the  war  the  peak  of  production  was  reached  in  1916,  with  a 
56-hour  week  and  an  average  of  8  pairs  of  shoes  per  operative  per  day. 
The  confusion  of  war,  disorganization  of  our  organization,  reduction 
of  hours  to  48  weekly,  difficulty  with  supplies  and  many  other  dis- 
turbing influences  reduced  our  output  during  the  period  from  the 
armistice  to  the  following  January  to  about  6  pairs  on  the  same  unit 
basis.  Since  then  the  output  has  gradually  but  steadily  increased  to 
7,  8,  9,  10,  and  today  stands  at  11  pairs  of  shoes  daily  per  operative 
on  a  48-hour  weekly  schedule,  in  comparison  with  8  pairs  on  a  56- 
hour  schedule.  We  do  not  deal  with  or  recognize  any  trade  unions. 
By  means  of  diff"erent  methods  of  management  the  turnover  has  been 
reduced  from  a  very  high  percentage  to  a  present  rate  of  12.5%  per 
annum. 

45 


The  ability  of  these  three  plants  to  increase  output  was 
obviously  due  to  the  handwork  character  of  most  of  the  proc- 
esses in  the  shoe  manufacturing  industry,  which  permitted 
increased  efficiency  of  the  workers  on  the  shorter  schedule. 

It  is  significant  to  note  that  the  number  of  pieceworkers 
in  these  establishments  was  very  high.  One  establishment 
stated  that  the  same  results  would  probably  not  have  been 
obtained  if  the  work  were  not  on  this  basis.  The  morale  of 
the  workers  was  mentioned  by  two  manufacturers  as  an  impor- 
tant factor  in  increasing  output,  and  the  third  establishment 
reported  a  very  small  labor  turnover,  which  indicated  a 
contented  body  of  workers  in  that  plant  also.  Two  of  the 
establishments  were  notably  large  and  well-organized  and 
devoted  an  exceptional  amount  of  attention  to  methods  of 
management  and  to  labor  problems. 

Output  Maintained 

Thirteen  plants  were  able  to  maintain  output.  Ten  of 
these  were  in  the  48-hour  group  and  only  three  in  the  45-hour 
group.  Two  establishments  reduced  their  working  schedules 
from  A9y2  hours  to  48  hours. 

This  group  of  establishments  was  characterized  in  most 
cases  by  a  large  proportion  of  pieceworkers.  In  two  cases 
the  pieceworkers  were  reported  as  working  practically  the 
same  length  of  time  as  before,  though  nominal  hours  of  work 
had  been  reduced.  This  had  the  effect  of  maintaining  previous 
output  in  these  cases.  Five  establishments  reported  a  bonus 
system  which  operated  as  an  incentive  to  increase  production. 
In  two  establishments  new  machinery  was  installed  to  help 
maintain  output.  A  number  of  establishments  reported  that 
the  contentment  and  cooperation  of  the  workers  influenced 
production. 

One  establishment,  with  95%  pieceworkers,  reported: 

We  are  doing  approximately  as  much  work  in  45  hours  as  we  were 
doing  in  50  hours,  due  to  shop  rules  put  into  the  factory  by  unions. 

One  very  large  establishment,  which  reported  a  bonus  as 
well  as  the  piecework  system  of  wage  payment,  stated: 

We  find  that  our  production  per  employee  is  not  decreased  by  a  re- 
duction in  working  hours  from  54  to  45  per  week.  The  natural  loss  of 
efficiency  in  production  is  more  than  balanced  by  improved   methods 

46 


in  management  and  machinery  and,  more  than  all,  by  improvement 
in  the  morale  of  the  worker.  We  are  improving  the  morale  of  the 
worker  and|have  increased  the  cooperative  spirit  of  the  works  by  new 
methods,  by  a  scientific  system  of  employment  management,  by 
works  and  district  doctors  and  nurses,  by  social  activities,  by  an 
employees'  journal,  and  especially  by  our  Planning  Board  which 
studies  and  directs  production  by  looking  forward  for  several  months 
and  keeps  production  normal  by  reports  and  checks  every  hour. 

Another    establishment,   with    80%    pieceworkers    and    an 
attendance  and  punctuaHty  bonus,  stated: 

The  changing  of  hours  made  no  visible  change  in  output.  The 
workers  did  all  that  was  sent  through  the  works  as  before,  but  more 
promptly  and  more  efficiently. 

The   management   of  another   establishment,    reporting   a 
bonus  for  production  over  a  certain  standard,  stated: 

Weekly  output  has  been  maintained  even  though  the  hours  of  work 
are  shorter.  This  is  due  in  great  part  to  the  fact  that  a  large  number 
of  our  hands  are  pieceworkers  who,  when  we  worked  50  hours  a  week, 
never  worked  more  than  46  or  47  hours,  and  who,  under  the  48-hour 
schedule,  are  still  working  46  or  47  hours. 

One  establishment  with  85%  pieceworkers  reported: 

Our  experience  with  the  48-hour  week  has,  on  the  whole,  been  very 
satisfactory.  We  feel  that  the  present  arrangement  of  working  hours 
(eight  hours  and  forty-five  minutes  a  day  and  half  day  on  Saturday) 
is  acceptable  and  very  satisfactory  to  the  working  force.  We  have 
suffered  little  if  any  through  the  reduction  from  the  50-hour  week. 
Production  is  based  in  the  main  upon  the  speed  of  the  operatives 
in  handling  the  machines,  and  so  we  think  that  the  measure  of  con- 
tentment on  the  part  of  the  operatives  through  shorter  working  hours 
offsets  any  loss  in  production  that  might  otherwise  occur. 

An  establishment  with  90%  pieceworkers  reported: 

On  account  of  piecework  and  arrangement  of  processes,  practically 
the  same  hours  were  worked  by  most  of  our  people,  as  few  ever  re- 
main until  closing  time.  We  changed  the  hours  of  labor  in  our  factory 
to  conform  with  the  requirements  for  working  hours  for  women, 
making  the  hours  uniform  in  the  entire  factory  for  both  men  and  wom- 
en. Before  starting,  our  hours  of  labor  were  50  hours  and  45  min- 
utes. The  reduction  was  not  great  enough  to  make  any  material  differ- 
ence, as  our  factory  is  run  almost  entirely  upon  the  piecework  basis, 
and  most  of  the  people  did  not  average  more  than  48  hours  at  any 
time,  except  in  special  instances  when  we  had  overtime  work. 

Less  than  Proportional  Decrease  in  Output 

Of  the  ten   establishments   which   reported   a   decrease   in 
weekly  output  less  than  proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours, 

47 


six  were  in  the  48-hour  group,  two  in  the  45-hour  group,  and 
two  in  the  44-hour  group. 

It  was  characteristic  of  the  group  which  decreased  output 
less  than  in  proportion  to  the  reduction  in  hours,  that  in  a 
majority  of  the  cases  the  pieceworkers  maintained  previous 
weekly  output  and  that  the  dayworkers  were  not  able  to  do 
so.  In  a  number  of  cases  the  dayworkers  received  a  propor- 
tional increase  in  pay,  while  the  piece-rates  remained  the  same, 
which  would  mean  that  it  was  necessary  for  the  pieceworkers 
to  produce  the  same  amount  as  previously  to  obtain  the  same 
weekly  wage.  In  three  establishments  bonus  systems  were  an 
incentive  to  increase  production.  In  certain  cases  also  the 
ability  to  increase  hourly  output  was  due  largely  to  improved 
methods  of  management.  Increased  contentment  of  the 
workers  accompanied  an  increase  in  hourly  output  in  a  signifi- 
cant number  of  establishments. 

One  establishment  reported: 

There  is  absolutely  no  question  but  that  we  have  lost  in  production, 
particularly  among  week-workers.  In  addition  thereto  it  has  cost  us 
considerable  for  the  installation  of  more  expensive  machinery  in  order 
to  maintain  production. 

Another  manufacturer  who  reported  that  the  hourly  output 
in  his  plant  was  above  normal  and  constantly  improving, 
stated: 

The  energy  of  the  worker  is  improved,  the  morale  of  the  establish- 
ment is  higher  than  three  years  ago,  the  production  per  machine  is 
greater.  Some  of  this  increased  efficiency  is  due  to  our  improved 
methods,  health  training,  nursing  service,  group  insurance,  but  most 
of  it  is  due  to  the  operatives.  They  are  beginning  to  think,  to  cooper- 
ate; the  union  is  changing  also;  the  exercise  of  their  initiative  is  making 
better  men  and  women.     They  naturally  produce  better  work. 

Still  another,  reporting  that  weekly  production  was  only 
slightly  affected  by  lessening  of  hours  of  work,  stated: 

Greater  efficiency  in  machines,  methods  and  management  in  every 
department  compensates  for  shorter  hours.  We  run  a  closed  union 
shop  and  always  have.  The  locals  are  managed  by  officials  who  have 
been  re-elected  year  after  year.  They  know  their  business  and  are 
agreeable  in  their  dealings.  We  are  satisfied  to  do  business  with 
them. 

One  establishment,  which  reported  a  difficulty  in  maintain- 
ing the  quality  of  production,  stated: 

48 


Pieceworkers  either  demanded  advanced   prices  or  developed  more 
speed  and  turned  out  poor  work. 
^ 
Proportional  Decrease  in  Output. 

Twenty-two  establishments,  thirteen  in  the  48-hour  group, 
eight  in  the  45-hour  group,  and  one  in  the  44-hour  group  re- 
ported a  decrease  in  weekly  output  proportional  to  the  reduc- 
tion in  hours. 

In  a  small  number  of  the  establishments  the  effects  of  the 
reduction  in  working  time  were  reported  as  especially  noticea- 
ble in  certain  departments,  but  the  average  decrease  for  the 
whole  plant  was  in  most  cases  approximately  proportional  to 
the  reduction  in  hours. 

In  most  cases  the  establishments  reported  that  there  was 
no  apparent  change  in  the  contentment  of  the  workers.  Two 
establishments  reported  dissatisfied  workers,  and  in  two  cases 
increased  contentment  of  the  workers  was  reported,  but  in 
none  of  these  cases  was  hourly  output  affected. 

One  manufacturer  stated: 

During  the  years  when  the  hours  of  labor  in  the  shoe  industry  were 
being  gradually  reduced  from  59  to  54  or  possibly  52  hours,  we  were 
able  to  observe  some  compensating  advantages,  although  we  must  ad- 
mit that  they  were  largely  in  theory,  or  from  the  humanitarian  point  of 
view.  The  reductions  since  that  period,  however,  have  not  appeared 
to  carry  any  important  offsets.  They  have  simply  resulted  in  a 
decreased  production,  with  a  proportionately  increased  cost.  Concerns 
so  operating  are  frequently  at  a  disadvantage  as  compared  with  those 
operating  longer  hours. 

Another  manufacturer  reported  no  change  in  piecework 
output,  but  a  large  decrease  in  daywork  output: 

Our  basis  of  production  is  the  stitching  machine,  upon  which  the 
whole  factory  production  planning  is  based.  These  machines  are 
producing  the  normal  quantity  today,  but  our  day  labor  has  been 
increased  to  keep  these  machines  running  at  this  speed.  We  figure  our 
day  labor  has  decreased  in  production  about  15%  below  pre-war 
records.  We  employ  a  good  many  bench  workers.  A  good  many 
orders  are  for  strictly  hand-made  shoes  and  we  are  working  a  number 
of  old-fashioned  shoemakers,  whose  product  has  diminished  in  propor- 
tion to  the  reduction  in  hours. 

Still  another  reported: 

The  effects  of  lessening  hours  were  naturally  the  most  noticeable  in 
such  departments  in  our  manufactunng  plant  as  were  least  adaptable 

49 


for  expansion.  In  our  particular  business,  our  cutting  room  and  stitch- 
ing room  suffered  the  most  because  we  did  not  have  adequate  space 
to  increase  the  number  of  employees,  while  in  all  other  departments 
we  could  increase  employees  by  the  placing  of  additional  equipment 
which  we  had  the  room  for,  thereby  giving  us  the  opportunity,  if 
we  so  desired,  to  keep  up  possibly  our  normal  output  as  it  existed 
before  the  change.  Our  loss  in  production  is  approximately  15% 
or  the  loss  of  the  Saturday  half-day,  of  which  formerly  we  had  the 
benefit. 

Greater  Than  Proportional  Decrease  in  Output 

Of  the  18  plants  in  which  the  decrease  in  weekly  output 
was  greater  than  proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours,  seven 
were  in  the  48-hour  group,  ten  in  the  45-hour  group,  and  one 
in  the  44-hour  group. 

Half  of  the  establishments  in  this  group  reported  an  inferior 
quality  of  production,  and  over  half  reported  that  their  work- 
ers were  less  contented.  Approximately  one-third  of  the 
establishments  stated  that  in  their  opinion  the  decrease  in  the 
hourly  efficiency  of  the  workers  was  due  not  only  to  the  reduc- 
tion in  hours  but  to  the  shortage  of  labor,  to  labor  unrest  and 
high  wages.  Only  one  establishment  reported  a  bonus  or 
profit-sharing  plan. 

One  manufacturer  reported: 

Our  output  has  shrunk  30  to  35%  and  the  quality  of  work  almost  as 
much.  We  attribute  it  to  the  attitude  of  labor  due  to  the  strength  of 
their  organization  and  their  success  in  getting  the  Adamson  Law 
passed. 

Another  stated: 

We  beheve  that  without  union  interference  it  would  be  possible 
for  us  to  produce  as  much  in  48  hours  as  we  formerly  did  in  54. 

One  establishment  comments  as  follows: 

The  country  at  the  present  time  is  in  great  need  of  increased  produc- 
tion, and  in  order  to  meet  this  need  more  time  must  be  spent  in  the 
factory  by  the  workers.  It  is,  in  our  opinion,  a  fallacy  to  say  that  as 
much  work  can  be  done  in  48  hours  as  in  54  hours. 

Another  manufacturer  expressed  the  following  opinion: 

It  is  not  any  great  change  in  hours  that  we  feel  is  needed,  but  con- 
scientious application  on  the  part  of  the  workers  during  the  hours  now 
worked,  and  a  more  prompt  attendance  during  this  time. 

We  feel  that  the  only  solution  for  the  present  situation  is  for  the 
management  of  the  various  industries  to  have  complete  control  and 

50 


authority  over  their  individual  organizations,  free  of  dictation  from 
union  organizers,  whose  interests  are  often  personal  rather  than  for 
the  good  of  the  community  at  large. 

If  the  mind  of  the  worker  could  be  concentrated  on  his  work,  free 
from  all  outside  influence,  his  production  and  wages  for  a  48-hour  week 
would  be  most  satisfactory. 

Another  stated  his  experience  as  follows: 

It  is  a  serious  question  whether  the  continual  cutting  down  of  work- 
ing time  does  not  lessen  the  employees'  sense  of  responsibility  and 
loyalty  to  their  work.  Our  most  diflicult  task  is  to  stimulate  in  the 
workers  an  interest  in  quantity  and  quality  of  production. 

One  manufacturer  expressed  the  following  opinion: 

There  is  no  question  but  what  the  prevailing  high  wages  have  had  a 
tendency  to  make  attendance  less  steady  and  to  increase  the  desire 
to  take  a  day  off  occasionally.  The  tendency  can  and  probably  will 
be  corrected.  We  believe  that  every  effort  should  now  be  made  to 
get  the  greatest  possible  production  out  of  the  present  working  hours. 
In  our  own  case,  some  slight  change  or  reorganization  of  departments 
will  enable  us  to  at  least  partially  make  up  the  loss  of  production  we 
have  suffered.  When  the  employees  realize  the  necessity  of  working 
the  full-hour  day  and  the  full-day  week  on  our  present  schedule  there  is 
no  question  but  that  manufacturing  conditions  will  more  nearly  reach 
normal. 

The    following    experience    with    the    five-day    week    was 
reported: 

Having  so  much  idle  time,  especially  on  Saturday  and  Sunday, 
when  it  comes  Monday  morning  the  workers  are  entirely  unfit  to 
accomplish  their  normal  production  or  standard  of  workmanship  on 
account  of  their  mental  and  physical  condition. 

Another    manufacturer    operating    on    the    five-day    week 
stated: 

In  five  nine-hour  days  production  falls  off  materially,  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  fatigue  point  is  reached  on  the  nine  hours,  so  that  the 
operators  produce  no  more  than  they  would  in  eight.  In  our  particu- 
lar industry,  where  the  drying  of  the  product  has  a  bearing  on  how 
efficiently  the  work  can  be  done,  the  two  days'  stop  every  fifth  day 
interferes  seriously. 

Still  another: 

This  loss  of  a  part  of  a  legitimate  business  day  causes  many  serious 
embarrassments  in  the  matter  of  production  and  in  the  matter  of 
transportation  as  well.  Many  contingencies  could  be  met  by  the  use 
of  this  half  of  the  business  day  lost  at  the  present  time,  thus  over- 
coming many  delays  in  production  constantly  occurring  from  unfore- 
seen contingencies,  and  overcoming  to  a  great  extent  many  difficulties 
in  transportation. 

51 


Output  Decreased — Amount  Not  Stated. 

Of  the  22  establishments  decreasing  production,  but  not 
stating  the  extent  of  such  decrease,  14  were  in  the  48-hour 
group,  7  in  the  45-hour  group  and  one  in  the  44-hour  group. 
Comment  from  the  estabhshments  in  this  group  points  also  to 
lowered  morale  of  the  worker  as  a  reason  for  decrease  of  pro- 
duction. 

One  manufacturer  stated: 

Employees  care  only  to  earn  a  living  with  the  least  effort  possible. 

One  establishment  reported: 

We  know  that  in  the  past  year  the  quality  of  production  has  deterior- 
ated quite  materially.  We  attribute  this  mostly  to  lack  of  discipline 
because  of  union  influence,  and  partly  to  the  trend  of  the  times  in  labor 
circles. 

One  establishment  with  50%  pieceworkers  reported: 

There  is  no  question  but  what  the  working  man  has  fallen  off  any- 
where from  10%  to  25%  in  his  production,  especially  where  the  opera- 
tors are  paid  by  the  day,  as  they  are  in  this  factory.  The  manu- 
facturer has  not  been  in  any  position  to  get  after  this  help  because  he 
had  no  choice;  he  had  to  take  what  he  could  get.  Even  under  this 
exceptionally  dull  period  where  so  many  have  been  loafing  in  the  shoe 
industry,  we  have  had  only  one  or  two  come  and  ask  us  for  work, 
which  shows  that  the  condition  is  still  very  easy  for  the  working  man, 
or  else  he  has  money  enough  laid  away  so  that  he  still  feels  indepen- 
dent. Our  most  serious  problem  is  the  labor  question — short  hours 
and  the  disinclination  of  employees  to  put  real  interest  into  their 
work. 

Another   manufacturer,   operating   on   the   five-day   week, 

reported: 

In  general,  we  find  a  decided  lessening  of  production,  as  Friday 
afternoon  is  rapidly  growing  to  be  about  the  same  as  Saturday  morning 
formerly.  The  men  quit  work  early  in  anticipation  of  receiving  their 
pay  and  getting  away. 

Conclusions  for  Boot  and  Shoe  Manufacturing 

1.  From  the  experience  of  the  establishments  studied  in 
this  investigation  it  is  apparent  that  full  production  could  not 
be  maintained  in  the  boot  and  shoe  manufacturing  industry  on 
a  48-hour  weekly  schedule  except  in  unusual  cases.  With  a 
45-hour  or  44-hour  week  it  was  still  more  difficult  to  increase 
hourly  efficiency  to  the  extent  of  maintaining  previous  output. 

52 


2.  The  large  part  which  handwork  plays  in  the  manufac- 
turing process,  however,  made  it  possible  to  increase  the  hourly 
output  of  the  worker  to  a  much  greater  degree  than  in  the 
textile  industry,  and  the  extent  to  which  the  work  was  con- 
ducted on  a  piece-rate  basis  in  most  cases  provided  the  in- 
centive for  such  increase.  In  a  large  number  of  the  establish- 
ments handwork  output  was  reported  as  maintained  and 
machine-work  decreased,  and  in  many  establishments  the 
pieceworkers  succeeded  in  maintaining  their  previous  weekly 
output,  while  the  production  of  the  dayworkers  fell  off.  In 
certain  establishments,  however,  maintaining  piecework  out- 
put meant  only  that  the  pieceworkers  had  kept  very  irregular 
hours  previously  and  were  actually  working  approximately 
the  same  length  of  time  under  the  present  schedule. 

3.  In  practically  every  case  the  wages  for  dayworkers  were 
increased  to  make  up  for  the  decrease  in  hours,  but  in  a  num- 
ber of  establishments  piece-rates  were  not  increased,  with  the 
result  that  it  was  necessary  for  the  worker  either  to  work  a 
longer  time  or  more  efficiently  to  receive  the  same  weekly 
wage.  This  situation  was  reflected  in  the  output  results  of 
those  plants.  A  bonus  accompanied  a  large  increase  in  hourly 
output  in  a  number  of  establishments. 

4.  The  morale  of  the  worker  apparently  had  a  direct  bear- 
ing upon  output.  This  was  true,  of  course,  in  all  of  the  indus- 
tries studied,  but  seemed  to  be  more  especially  noticeable  in 
this  industry,  where  the  human  element  was  so  great  a  factor 
in  production.  In  general,  most  of  those  establishments  report- 
ing the  attitude  of  the  workers  as  good  or  better,  were  those 
which  suffered  little  or  no  decrease  in  weekly  output,  whereas 
those  reporting  less  contentment  on  the  part  of  the  workers, 
because  of  general  labor  unrest,  labor  shortage,  high  wages, 
lack  of  discipline,  and  attitude  of  the  unions,  sustained  a 
decrease  in  production,  in  most  cases  greater  than  propor- 
tional to  the  reduction  in  hours.  Especially  was  this  true  in 
certain  of  the  highly  unionized  districts  of  Massachusetts. 

General  Opinion  on  Length  of  Work  Week 

The  replies  of  a  majority  of  the  manufacturers  disclosed  a 
preference  for  the  50-hour  week.     The  48-hour  week  was 

53 


favored  by  a  comparatively  large  number,  but  usually  with 
qualifications  as  to  working  conditions  or  regarding  its  general 
adoption  in  the  industry.  A  smaller  number  expressed  the 
opinion  that  a  54-hour  or  a  55-hour  week  would  be  most 
satisfactory. 

One  manufacturer  commented,  as  follows: 

If  we  were  starting  a  factory  in  a  place  where  we  could  do  reasonably 
as  we  chose,  we  believe  that  we  would  operate  about  9}4  hours  for 
five  days  and  about  five  hours  on  Saturday.  If  local  sentiment 
permitted  our  operating  a  full  day  Saturday,  during  say  eight  months 
in  the  year,  six  days  of  about  nine  hours  would  be  splendid.  This 
layout  is  on  the  basis  of  industrial  efficiency,  with  reasonable  regard 
for  the  other  phase  of  the  subject. 

One  establishment   expressed    a   preference   for   a   50-hour 
week: 

While  we  feel  that  the  fifty  hour-week  is  the  ideal  one,  and  we  know 
that,  under  normal  conditions,  production  would  increase,  we  have  no 
data  other  than  our  opinion  in  this  matter. 

Another  stated: 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  shorter  day  with  the  same  rate  of  wages 
as  before,  in  place  of  having  a  stimulating  effect  on  the  employees,  has 
worked  the  opposite.  We  feel  that  a  50-hour  week  would  be  best  for 
all  concerned,  now  that  the  half-holiday  Saturday  has  become  uni- 
versally adopted. 

One  establishment  operating  48  hours  per  week  stated: 

Since  the  eight-hour  day  is  more  or  less  an  accepted  fact  of  the 
shoe  industry,  it  would  seem  to  us  inadvisable,  at  least  under  present 
conditions,  to  make  any  effort  to  lengthen  the  hours  of  this  schedule. 

One  manufacturer  expressed   a  preference   for  a   five-day 
week  in  the  present  circumstances: 

Personally  the  writer  thinks  that  the  Saturday  half-day  work  does  not 
accomplish  much,  and  it  is  doubtful  in  many  instances  whether  the 
employee  would  come  in  at  all  if  it  were  not  pay  day.  It  seems  to  the 
writer  that  it  only  breaks  up  the  day  and  that  much  more  could  be 
accomplished  if  the  working  day  were  nine  hours,  five  days  a  week, 
with  no  Saturday  work. 


54 


VII 
METAL  MANUFACTURING 

Data  were  received  from  117  metal  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments, employing  169,519  workers. 

Changes   in  Work-week  Schedules 

Of  the  117  establishments,  the  majority  reported  that  they 
had  reduced  their  working  schedule  to  48  hours  per  week. 
Schedules  ranging  from  47  to  44  hours  were  also  reported. 

In  most  of  the  establishments  the  schedule  was  divided 
into  a  work  week  of  5^  days.  In  one  case  only,  in  the  45-hour 
group,  was  a  five-day  week  reported.  Ten  plants  operated  on 
a  two-shift  basis  and  six  on  a  three-shift  basis,  and  in  four  of 
these  plants  the  full  six-day  week  was  retained. 

The  majority  of  establishments  making  reduction  to  a  48- 
hour  schedule  previously  operated  on  a  schedule  of  54  or  55 
hours.  Those  which  changed  from  a  two-shift  to  a  three-shift 
basis,  however,  had  in  most  cases  previously  worked  on  a  12- 
hour  shift  or  with  much  overtime.  The  reduction  to  45  hours 
was  mostly  from  a  50-hour  week,  and  those  establishments 
reducing  to  a  44-hour  week  had  in  nearly  all  cases  previously 
worked  48  hours. 

Changes  in  Output  Accompanying  Reduction  in  Hours 

Of  the  117  metal  manufacturing  establishments  included  in 
this  investigation,  46  were  able  to  increase  hourly  output,  in 
25  cases  to  the  extent  of  attaining  or  exceeding  previous  weekly 
output;  31  plants  maintained  the  same  hourly  output  as  pre- 
viously, or  decreased  weekly  production  in  proportion  to  the 
reduction  in  hours,  and  16  plants  decreased  hourly  as  well  as 
weekly  output.  Twenty-four  plants  reported  a  decrease  in 
weekly  output,  but  did  not  state  the  amount  of  such  decrease. 

The  changes  in  output  for  all  establishments  are  shown  in 
the  following  table: 

55 


TABLE  11:  METAL  MANUFACTURING:  CHANGES  IN  WEEKLY 
OUTPUT  PER  WORKER  ACCOMPANYING  REDUCTION  TO  A 
WEEK  OF  48  HOURS  OR  LESS 

(National  Industrial  Conference  Board) 


Changes  In  Output 

Establish- 
ments 
Reporting 

Percentage 
of  Total 

Employees 
in  Group 

Increased     

Maintained 

9 
16 

21 
31 

16 

24 

43.6 
6.4 

Decrease,  less  than  proportional  to  the  reduction 
in  hours 

Decrease,  proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours   . 

Decrease,  greater  than  proportional  to  the  reduc- 
tion in  hours 

12.5 
9.4 

3.8 

Decrease,  amount  not  stated 

24.3 

Total 

117 

100.0 

The  following  diagram  shows  the  percentage  of  establish- 
ments in  each  group  reporting  changes  in  output: 


Diagram  7:  Changes  in 
Weekly  Output  Per  Worker 
Accompanying  a  Reduction  to 
A  Week  of  48  Hours  or  Less: 
Metal  Manufacturing. 

117  Establishments 


48-Hour  Week 

The  changes  in  output  in  this  group  of  establishments  are 
shown  in  the  following  table: 

56 


TABLE  12:  METAL  MANUFACTURING:  CHANGES  IN  WEEKLY 
OUTPUT  PER  WORKER  ACCOMPANYING  REDUCTION  TO  A 
48-HOUR  SCHEDULE 

(National  Industrial  Conference  Board) 


Changes  In  Output 

Establish- 
ments 
Reporting 

Percentage 
of  Total 

Employees 
in  Group 

Increased     

Maintained 

7a 
13b 

18 
27 

16 
19 

55.2 
2.9 

Decrease,  less  than  proportional  to  the  reduction 
in  hours 

12.0 

Decrease,  proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours    . 
Decrease,  greater  than  proportional  to  the  reduc- 
tion in  hours 

Decrease,  amount  not  stated 

8.4 

4.8 
16.7 

Total 

100^6 

100.0 

a  Includes  one  establishment  operating  on  a  47^  hour  schedule. 
b  Includes  one  establishment  operating  on  a  47  hour  schedule. 

4^-Hour  Week 

Changes  in  output  in  these  estabhshments  are  shown  in  the 
following  table: 

TABLE  13:  METAL  MANUFACTURING:  CHANGES  IN  WEEKLY 
OUTPUT  PER  WORKER  ACCOMPANYING  REDUCTION  TO  A 
45-HOUR  SCHEDULE 

(National  Industrial  Conference  Board) 


Changes  In  Output 

Establish- 
ments 
Reporting 

Percentage 
of  Total 

Employees 
in  Group 

Increased     

Maintained 

1 

1 

1 

2 

0 

1 

11.4 

27.7 

Decrease,  less  than  proportional  to  the  reduction 
in  hours 

Decrease,  proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours    . 

Decrease,  greater  than  proportional  to  the  reduc- 
tion in  hours   ....        

12.3 
34.2 

0.0 

Decrease,  amount  not  stated 

14.4 

Total 

6 

100.0 

44-Hour  Week 

Changes  in  output  in  this  group  of  establishments  are  shown 
in  the  following  table: 

57 


TABLE  14:  METAL  MANUFACTURING:  CHANGES  IN 
OUTPUT  PER  WORKER  ACCOMPANYING  REDUCTION 
HOUR  SCHEDULE 

(National  Industrial  Conference  Board) 


WEEKLY 
TO    A   44- 


Changes  In  Output 

Establish- 
ments 
Reporting 

Percentage 
of  Total 

Employees 
in  Group 

Increased     

Maintained 

Decrease,  less  than  proportional  to  the  reduction 
in  hours 

1 
2 

2a 
2 

0 

4a 

0.1 
16.6 

12.6 

Decrease,  proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours   . 
Decrease,  greater  than  proportional  to  the  reduc- 
tion in  hours 

Decrease,  amount  not  stated 

21.7 

0.0 
49.0 

Total 

Iia 

100.0 

"  Includes  one  establishment  operating  on  a  44^-hour  schedule. 

Analysis  of  Changes  in  Output 

Output  Increased 

Nine  plants  reported  an  increase  in  weekly  output.  Seven 
of  these  were  in  the  48-hour  group,  one  in  the  45-hour  group, 
one  in  the  44-hour  group.  In  all  but  two  cases  these  establish- 
ments were  of  medium  size,  ranging  from  200  to  1,200  employ- 
ees. One,  however,  was  very  small,  with  28  workers,  and  one 
plant  employed  70,000  workers.  Two-thirds  of  the  plants  re- 
ported increased  contentment  on  the  part  of  the  workers. 
Four  plants  reported  improved  quality  of  production. 

The  experience  of  one  establishment,  as  related  below,  was 
not  typical,  inasmuch  as  a  highly  specialized  product  was 
manufactured,  but  it  illustrates  clearly  the  value  of  scientific 
study  of  the  hours-of-work  problem  in  individual  plants  and 
the  extent  to  which  a  carefully  worked-out  schedule  of  hours 
influenced  production. 

This  company  manufactures  a  line  of  tools  and  machinery  for  the 
cutting  of  accurate  screw  threads  to  close  limits.  The  work  is  large- 
ly of  a  special  nature,  differing  quite  materially  in  practice,  condi- 
tions and  shop-methods  from  those  of  the  ordinary  machine  shop  or 
those  of  the  builders  of  so-called  machine  tools.  Much  of  our  work 
is  of  a  precision  nature  and  requires  close  fitting  which  calls  for  skill 
both  as  to  hand  and  eye.  This  is  true  both  in  our  handwork  and  in 
most  of  our  machine  operations. 

58 


The  writer  had  noticed,  and  at  times  had  been  alarmed  at  the  fre- 
quency of  illness  amongst  our  workmen — especially  among  those  who 
were  concerned  in  the  work  of  close  fitting,  grinding,  inspection  and 
testing — and  at  the  large  number  of  rejections  in  finished  parts.  A  care- 
ful study  of  the  conditions  soon  revealed  the  fact  that  nearly  all  parts 
that  were  finished  under  normal  conditions,  that  is  natural  light,  were 
largely  perfect,  but  that  parts  finished  under  artificial  light  were  large- 
ly defective.  We  also  discovered  that  eye  strain  was  very  much 
greater  under  artificial  light  than  under  natural  light,  and  that  much 
of  the  illness  aflFecting  various  departments  was  due  to  nervousness 
caused  by  eye  strain.  The  writer  started,  early  in  1914,  a  series  of 
experiments  in  order  to  determine,  if  possible,  how  many  hours 
a  normal  man  could  carry  on  the  work  of  close  fitting  on 
polished  steel  without  undue  fatigue,  and  these  experiments  clearly 
proved  (to  the  writer  at  least)  that  eight  hours  was  about  the  maxi- 
mum it  seemed  practicable  to  expect  for  a  100%  finished  product 
within  the  desired  limits  of  tolerance.  This  meant  the  practical  elim- 
ination of  artificial  light.  We  have  been  unable  to  find  any  system 
of  artificial  light  that  will  relieve  the  eye  strain  suflRciently  to  prevent 
fatigue.  The  writer  then  decided  to  carry  the  experiment  farther  to 
determine  just  what  drop  in  production  might  be  expected  under  a 
general  eight-hour  day,  and  for  one  month  operated  the  works  on  an 
eight-hour  day,  or  48-hour  week.  By  speeding  up  certain  machines 
to  overcome  a  drop  in  wholly  mechanical  operations,  it  was  found 
possible  to  retain  a  normal  production,  although  in  some  cases  a  change 
in  tooling  was  found  necessary  to  accomplish  results.  During  the 
month's  experiment  we  found  that  our  production  showed  a  slight 
increase  due  to  the  fact  that  a  greater  number  of  finished  parts  were 
passed  through  the  inspection,  there  being  shown  to  be  a  considerable 
falling  off  in  imperfect  parts,  and  during  the  month  there  was  prac- 
tically no  complaint  of  illness  due  to  fatigue.  The  writer  then  decided 
to  continue  under  the  eight-hour  day,  but  to  establish  a  45-hour 
week,  by  which  Saturday  afternoon  would  be  added  to  Sunday  and 
provide  thereby  greater  time  for  rest  and  recreation. 

Our  production,  during  the  first  year,  was,  without  additional 
equipment,  not  only  maintained,  but  increased  about  io%  under  the 
45-hour  week,  this  increase  having  been  possible  only  through  the 
fact  that,  while  each  operative  failed  to  produce  quite  so  large  a  num- 
ber of  parts  as  under  former  conditions,  the  product  produced  ran 
close  to  100%  perfect,  whereas,  under  the  former  conditions  and  hours 
of  work,  rejections  of  finished  parts  had  been  large  in  number. 

The  experience  of  a  manufacturer  of  hatchets,  hammers  and 
edge  tools  illustrates  the  possibilities  of  the  shorter  work  week 
in  another  branch  of  the  industry: 

We  are  strong  supporters  of  the  "eight-hour  day."  This,  of  course,  ap- 
plies only  to  our  own  line  of  work.  I  personally  believe  that  there  are 
jobs  such  as  automatic  machine  operating  which  could  be  run  profitably 

59 


for  9yi  hours,  as  the  work  is  not  fatiguing.  Our  work,  however,  is 
very  fatiguing  in  most  of  our  departments,  and  the  men  working  more 
than  8  hours  a  day  are  always  slightly  exhausted,  losing  their  vitality 
and  making  them  subject  to  diseases.  Long  hours  also  upset  the  nerves 
and  make  a  man  irritable  and  quick  to  throw  up  his  job. 

We  have  found,  for  instance,  in  our  forging  department,  by  working 
%}/2  hours  the  men  will  work  steadily  and  hard,  taking  a  minimum 
amount  of  time  waiting  for  heats  and  setting  dies,  where  formerly, 
when  working  9>2  or  10  hours,  waiting  for  heats  and  setting  dies  were 
considered  as  rest  periods  and  consequently  a  sort  of  privileged  loafing 
time.  Our  grinding  department  worked  in  a  very  similar  manner. 
The  operators  were  always  slow  in  starting  after  the  whistle  and  usu- 
ally stopped  10,  15  or  20  minutes  before  the  time  of  the  whistle.  Now 
the  majority  of  our  men  work  from  whistle  to  whistle.  We  have 
throughout  the  shop  a  rest  period  from  9  o'clock  until  9:10  for  the  men 
to  eat  a  morning  lunch.  We  figure  that  the  majority  of  them  eat  their 
breakfast  before  6:30  in  the  morning,  and  waiting  until  12  o'clock 
means  a  very  long  stretch.  The  majority  of  the  men  bring  a  light 
lunch. 

The  summing  up  of  all  this  is  that  the  "eight-hour  day"  in  our  line 
of  work  is  both  beneficial  to  the  employee  and  the  employer.  It 
tends  to  increase  production,  cut  down  labor  turnover  and  raise 
the  standard  of  health  among  the  employees. 

One  establishment,  manufacturing  tire  pumps  for  automo- 
biles, which  reduced  from  a  50-hour  to  a  48-hour  week,  and 
from  one  to  two  shifts  per  day,  reported: 

The  eflFects  of  the  change  to  a  48-hour  week  have  not  been  so 
very  noticeable  in  our  factory,  excepting  among  the  pieceworkers, 
and  we  believe  that  the  change  there  is  due  to  the  high  scale  of  wage 
which  machine  operators  and  assemblers  drew  during  the  war  and 
directly  after. 

Eighty  per  cent  in  this  factory  were  on  a  piece-rate  basis. 

Three  plants  stated  that  their  production  was  increased, 
but  that  this  was  due  to  other  reasons  and  not  to  improved 
efficiency  resulting  from  the  reduction  in  hours. 

One  establishment,  manufacturing  structural  steel,  re- 
ported; 

Since  the  formation  of  this  company  the  plant  has  never  worked 
in  excess  of  48  hours  per  week  as  regular  working  time,  although  it 
has,  of  course,  worked  overtime  on  several  occasions.  In  September, 
1919,  it  was  decided  to  work  only  half  a  day  on  Saturday,  thus  giv- 
ing the  men  one  half-holiday  per  week,  they  to  receive  no  pay  for  the 
half-holiday  on  which  they  do  not  work.  This  was  entirely  satisfac- 
tory to  them  and  they  desired  to  have  the  hours  arranged  in  that 
manner.    We  have  not  found  that  our  increased  production  is  entirely 

60 


due  to  decrease  in  working  hours,  as  shortly  after  this  change  was  put 
into  effect,  we  employed  a  new  superintendent  who  is  responsible  for 
a  great  many  improvements  in  efficiency  and  output  at  our  plant. 

A  manufacturer  of  die  castings  stated: 

Our  output  has  increased  20%  since  shortening  hours,  but  cannot 
be  attributed  wholly  to  the  reduction  of  working  time. 

A  third  establishment  reported: 

We  have  increased  production  in  foundry  from  1100  tons  per  month 
to  1900  tons  (March),  due  altogether  to  more  efficient  practices,  and 
without  adding  an  inch  of  floor  space.  This  notwithstanding  a  re- 
duction of  an  hour  per  day  in  working  time.  The  men  are  not  to  be 
credited  with  any  part  in  the  increased  output. 

Two  establishments  reported  an  experience  with  the  48-hour 
week  lasting  over  a  period  of  years.  A  large  automobile  manu- 
facturing establishment  changed  to  a  three-shift  day  and  a  48- 
hour  week  in  January,  1914,  at  the  same  time  instituting  a 
profit-sharing  plan.  The  result  was  a  15%  to  20%  increase  in 
weekly  output. 

The  other  plant,  manufacturing  machine  tools,  changed  in 
1915  from  a  60-hour  to  a  48-hour  schedule.  This  plant  re- 
ported: 

We  have  been  running  under  the  eight-hour  day  for  the  past  five 
years,  and  we  are  satisfied  in  our  own  minds  that  it  is  a  success;  for 
we  know,  from  actual  records,  that  we  obtain  a  larger  output  than 
that  obtained  under  the  ten-hour  day  schedule. 

A  manufacturer  of  farm  machinery  emphasized  the  influence 
of  the  contentment  of  the  workers  on  output: 

We  have  an  increase  in  hourly  output  sufficient  to  more  than  offset 
the  reduction  in  hours,  or,  in  other  words,  to  make  an  increase  in  the 
weekly  output  per  worker.  We  attribute  this  condition  to  the  fact 
that  through  our  general  welfare  work — picnics,  band  concerts,  vaude- 
ville shows,  "Safety  First"  campaigns,  visiting  nurse — we  have  es- 
tablished and  maintained  between  the  management  and  its  employees 
a  spirit  of  friendliness  and  good-fellowship  which  manifests  itself  in 
full  cooperation  and  conscientious  endeavor  on  the  part  of  our  workmen. 

The  experience  of  those  establishments  which  have  been  able 
to  increase  weekly  output  points  clearly  to  the  fact  that 
ability  to  increase  production  depended  upon  many  factors, 
especially  upon  the  fatigue  element  involved  in  the  work,  the 
efficiency  of  the  management,  and  the  cooperation  of  the 
employees. 

61 


Output  Maintained 

Sixteen  establishments  reported  that  they  were  able  to 
maintain  weekly  output.  Thirteen  of  these  establishments 
were  in  the  48-hour  group,  one  in  the  45-hour  group,  and  two 
in  the  44-hour  group. 

The  ability  of  these  establishments  to  maintain  weekly 
output  depended  primarily  upon  the  character  of  the  work, 
which  in  most  cases,  due  to  the  absence  of  the  fatigue  ele- 
ment, permitted  increased  effort  on  the  part  of  the  workers 
under  the  shorter  hours.  The  installation  of  new  machinery, 
speeding  up  of  machinery,  more  efficient  methods  of  manage- 
ment, increased  effort  of  the  pieceworkers,  and  increased 
contentment  of  the  workers,  were  important  factors  which 
also  contributed  to  the  ability  of  individual  plants  to  main- 
tain their  previous  weekly  output  under  the  reduced  schedule, 

A  manufacturer  of  plumbing  supplies  attributed  mainte- 
nance of  output  to  the  installation  of  piecework: 

Since  the  time  of  change  in  hours  our  weekly  production  per  worker 
has  been  nearly  as  great  as  it  was  under  the  55-hour  week.  The  reason 
for  this  unusual  condition,  as  the  writer  sees  it,  is  the  fact  that  pre- 
vious to  that  time  we  had  a  limited  number  of  piecework  operations, 
and  the  establishment  of  piecework  on  all  operations  where  possible 
made  each  individual  operator  speed  up.  Even  the  non-productive 
and  productive  dayworker  speeded  up  in  order  to  keep  pace  with  his 
fellow  worker.  He  could  physically  afford  to  do  this  because  of 
the  shortened   hours. 

A  lamp  company  reported,  as  follows: 

New  and  improved  machinery  is  constantly  being  tried  and  installed, 
and  in  consequence  the  weekly  output  is  as  great,  if  not  a  Httle  greater, 
under  a  48-hour  week  than  it  was  under  a  54-hour  week.  This  is  due 
to  improvements  in  methods  and  management  and  a  more  satisfactory 
piecework  system.  Most  of  the  work  is  done  by  the  piece.  The  work- 
ers, both  men  and  women,  are  young  and  healthy,  and  work  rapidly 
and  steadily. 

One  plant,  whose  foundry  only  was  affected,  explained  that 
production  was  maintained  by  having  the  sand  cut  over  at 
night  so  the  moulders  could  start  working  promptly  at  eight 
o'clock  in  the  morning. 

A  wagon  company,  which  changed  from  a  ten-hour  day  to 
a  nine-hour  day  in  1918,  and  from  the  nine-hour  day  to  the 
eight-hour  day  in  1919,  reported  that  previous  output  was 
practically  maintained: 

62 


While  it  IS  possible  there  may  have  been  some  slight  reduction  in 
machinework,  upon  the  whole  we  see  no  appreciable  reduction  in  our 
output,  and  we  are  decidedly  of  the  opinion  that  it  is  better  to  work 
men  eight  hours,  even  though  the  amount  paid  be  the  same,  than  to 
work  them  either  nine  or  ten  hours. 

A  large  shipbuilding  plant  attributed  the  maintenance  of 
output  to  new  methods  which  improved  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  production,  with  no  greater  exertion  on  the  part  of 
the  workers. 

An  establishment  manufacturing  castings  reported: 

We  had  an  increase  in  hourly  output  sufficient  to  offset  the  reduc- 
tion from  nine  to  eight  hours.  It  is  our  opinion,  however,  that  one 
great  reason  for  this  result  was  that  our  production  per  man  per  day 
was  altogether  too  low  under  the  old  conditions. 

A  manufacturer  of  printing  machinery  stated: 

When  we  reduced  our  shift  from  48  to  44  hours,  with  an  increase 
of  10%  in  all  rates  to  keep  the  wages  at  the  same  level,  we  noted  a 
reduction  in  production.  This  has  since  improved,  and  we  feel  that 
now  we  are  obtaining  about  the  equivalent  of  the  former  48-hour 
production. 

A  stove  manufacturing  establishment  reported: 

So  far  as  we  can  see,  there  Has  been  absolutely  no  loss  and  a  pos- 
sible increase  in  the  productive  capacity  of  the  plant. 

Another  stove  manufacturer  said: 

We  have  watched  very  closely  and  find  that,  with  but  very  few  ex- 
ceptions, we  were  able  to  turn  out  as  much  finished  product  under  the 
eight-hour  day  as  when  we  were  working  nine  hours.  Our  business 
is  run  almost  entirely  on  a  piecework  basis,  and  when  the  men  under- 
stood that  the  change  would  be  made,  they  were  more  than  ready  to 
speed  up  and  try  to  make  up  the  amount  of  their  weekly  earnings.  We 
found  in  a  few  instances  that  a  workman  would  put  in  a  little  extra 
time  at  his  lunch  hour  rather  than  fall  behind  on  his  daily  output. 
Our  experience  has  been  so  satisfactory  with  the  48-hour  week  that 
we  have  no  reason  for  thinking  of  any  change. 

A  package  machinery  manufacturer  stated: 

When  we  made  this  change  there  was  no  noticeable  change  in  pro- 
duction. This  would  indicate  that  there  was  a  decided  increase  per 
hour.  In  other  words,  the  increase  in  hourly  output  offset  the  reduc- 
tion in  hours.  We  have  noticed  a  constant  improvement  since,  from 
a  production  standpoint. 

One  plant,  manufacturing  railway  freight  cars,  with  100% 
pieceworkers,  reported  as  factors  responsible  for  its  mainte- 
nance of  output,  the  speeding  up  of  machinery  where  possible, 

63 


increase  of  equipment  to  take  care  of  all  work  without  inter- 
ruption, and  closer  co-operation  between  departments. 

Less  Than  Proportional  Decrease  in  Output 

Twenty-one  plants  decreased  production  less  than  in  pro- 
portion to  the  reduction  in  hours.  Eighteen  of  these  estab- 
lishments were  in  the  48-hour  group,  one  in  the  45-hour  group 
and  two  in  the  44-hour  group. 

All  but  two  establishments  reported  no  change,  or  an 
increase  in  the  contentment  of  the  workers. 

Two-thirds  of  the  establishments  reported  that  they  were 
better  able  to  increase  hourly  output  in  certain  departments 
or  certain  processes  than  in  others.  Thus,  four  establish- 
ments reported  handwork  output  increased  more  than  ma- 
chine-work output,  six  establishments  reported  piecework 
output  maintained  and  daywork  output  decreased,  and  four 
establishments  cited  certain  departments  in  which  the  effects 
of  the  reduction  in  hours  were  especially  noticeable. 

In  four  cases  a  bonus  plan  was  in  operation. 

A  stove  manufacturer  reported: 

When  we  changed  from  the  ten  hours  to  the  nine  hours  about  ten 
yeais  ago  our  output  was  not  reduced.  Two  years  ago,  when  we  made 
the  change  from  nine  hours  to  eight  hours,  our  output  was  reduced, 
although  not  very  much. 

One  establishment,  manufacturing  magnetos  and  storage 
batteries,  stated: 

This  change  was  made  January,  1916.  Originally  we  were  work- 
ing 60  hours  a  week;  we  tried  out  the  55  hours  per  week  with  no  re- 
duction in  pay  and  found  that  we  had  no  decrease  in  production.  The 
next  step  was  the  drop  to  48  hours,  and  the  reduction  in  production 
was  equivalent  to  about  one-half  hour  per  day. 

However,  general  conditions  throughout  the  factory  seemed  to  be 
improved  to  such  an  extent  that  we  felt  it  worth  while  to  continue 
on  the  48-hour  per  week  basis.  We  run  an  open  shop  and  have  never 
found  it  necessary  to  deal  with  the  shop  committee;  we  have  no  piece- 
work, but  keep  fairly  accurate  production  records  and  rate  our  oper- 
ators in  accordance  with  the  amount  of  work  turned  out.  This  year 
we  started  a  bonus  system,  which  has  worked  out  to  our  entire  satis- 
faction. 

64 


Another  stove  manufacturer  stated: 

Our  experience  with  the  eight-hour  day  schedule  has  been  to  cause 
the  pieceworkers  to  speed  up  their  output  to  about  equal  that  on  the 
60-hour  week.  By  speeding  up  they  give  us  a  more  defective  class  of 
goods. 

An  establishment  manufacturing  railway  cars  reported: 

Production  maintained  except  on   machines  where  the  output  is 
governed  by  the  speed  of  the  machine. 

A  tool  manufacturing  establishment  operating  five  days  a 
week,  stated: 

Although  it  is  not  expected  that  employees  working  on  a  45-hour 
basis  can  and  will  accomplish  as  much  as  they  can  and  will  accom- 
plish in  50  hours  covering  6  days  or  5)4  days,  the  writer  knows  from 
experience  that  they  do  accomplish  more  per  average  hour  and  work 
more  cheerfully  because  of  the  Saturday  holiday  than  they  did  pre- 
viously. 

It  was  characteristic  of  the  group  of  establishments  which 
decreased  weekly  output  less  than  in  proportion  to  the  reduc- 
tion in  hours  (1)  that  in  the  departments  where  handwork 
predominated  or  where  a  large  amount  of  physical  exertion 
was  required  the  workers  were  better  able  to  increase  hourly 
output  on  the  shorter  schedule,  (2)  that  piece-rates  and  bonus 
systems  were  in  a  large  number  of  cases  an  incentive  to  in- 
creased effort  on  the  part  of  the  workers,  and  (3)  that  the 
increase  in  hourly  output  was  in  practically  every  case  accom- 
panied by  no  change  or  by  an  increase  in  the  contentment  of 
the  workers. 

Proportional  Decrease  in  Output 

Thirty-one  establishments  reported  a  decrease  in  weekly 
output  proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours,  or  a  mainte- 
nance of  hourly  output.  Twenty-seven  of  these  establish- 
ments were  in  the  48-hour  group,  two  in  the  45-hour  group, 
and  two  in  the  44-hour  group. 

Practically  every  establishment  reported  a  general  decrease 
in  production  throughout  all  departments  of  the  plant.  With 
one  exception  no  significant  changes  in  equipment  or  manage- 
ment were  reported.  One  establishment  reported  an  increase 
in  the  number  of  pieceworkers,  but  this  apparently  had  no 
effect  upon  output. 

65 


In  a  few  cases  increased  contentment  of  the  workers  was 
noted,  and  a  few  establishments  reported  greater  dissatisfac- 
tion among  the  employees,  but  on  the  whole  little  change  in 
the  attitude  of  the  worker  was  evidenced. 

An  establishment  manufacturing  linotype  machines  re- 
ported its  experience  as  follows: 

For  a  number  of  years  we  have  operated  on  a  48-hour  basis.  Due 
to  labor  difficulties  and  the  fact  of  our  competitor  going  on  a  44-hour 
basis,  we  of  necessity  had  to  do  the  same. 

It  is  difficult  to  advise  regarding  the  difference  in  production  be- 
tween 44  and  48  hours,  and  personally  we  do  not  feel  that  there  is  any 
increased  efficiency  compensating  for  the  time  lost.  We  have,  how- 
ever, absolutely  insisted  on  better  discipline  and  on  the  employees  being 
at  their  stations  ready  for  work  when  the  bell  rings.  Possibly  in  this 
direction  we  have  improved  the  situation,  and  we  are  consistently  en- 
deavoring to  put  more  work  on  a  piecework  basis  with  a  view  of 
securing  an  incentive  for  greater  production. 

A  manufacturer  of  cast-iron  meters  stated: 

Production  per  hour  on  48-hour  week  is  just  about  on  a  par  with 
production  on  55-hour  week,  with  higher  wage  per  hour  required. 

An  establishment  manufacturing  steel  gears  and  pinions 
reported  experience  with  varying  schedules  of  hours: 

Within  the  past  year,  we  have  worked  on  three  schedules  of  hours: 
48  hours  day  and  48  hours  night,  our  normal  standard;  42>^  hours 
day  and  night,  applied  for  a  number  of  months  when  work  was  very 
slack;  and  53  hours  day  and  60  hours  night  at  present,  as  emergency 
measure  to  increase  production.  Times  are  allowed  and  premiums 
offered  for  production,  and  while  we  have  studied  the  matter  care- 
fully, we  cannot  find  but  that  under  all  three  schedules  the  premiums 
earned  are  practically  proportionate  to  the  hours  worked. 

A  plant  building  yachts  and  boats  reported  as  follows: 

So  far  as  we  are  able  to  tell,  the  reduction  in  output  resulting  from 
the  change  to  48  hours  per  week  from  54  was  roughly  in  proportion 
to  the  reduction  in  time.  In  other  words,  the  reduction  did  not,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  men,  and  it  is  our  opin- 
ion that  the  general  efficiency  of  labor  in  this  plant  was  very  much 
reduced  during  the  war  period.  It  has  somewhat  improved  since  the 
end  of  the  war,  but  the  increase  is  by  no  means  sufficient  to  offset  the 
loss  in  time. 

Greater  Than  Proportional  Decrease  in  Output 

Sixteen  plants,  all  of  them  in  the  48-hour  group,  reduced 
hourly  as  well  as  weekly  output. 

66 


In  practically  every  case  other  causes  were  emphasized  as 
contributing  largely  to  the  decrease  in  production.  Chief 
among  the  reasons  named  were  the  scarcity  of  labor,  lack  of 
ability  to  enforce  discipline  among  the  workers,  general  labor 
unrest,  and  the  attitude  of  workers  created  by  the  rulings  of 
the  War  Labor  Board. 

A  number  of  plants  reported  also  a  decrease  in  the  quality 
of  production. 

In  three-fourths  of  the  cases  very  few  or  no  pieceworkers 
were  reported,  though  a  number  of  the  establishments  reported 
a  bonus  system. 

An  establishment  manufacturing  gasoline  engines  made  the 
following  comment: 

We  are  strongly  of  the  opinion  that  too  great  a  reduction  in  hours 
of  work  is  much  worse  for  the  workman  than  a  moderate  amount  of 
additional  hours.  A  workman  going  home  at  3  o'clock  or  4  o'clock  in 
the  afternoon  is  left  with  a  large  amount  of  idle  time  on  his  hands, 
and  the  habit  of  idling  becomes  fixed  upon  him  so  that  it  becomes 
difficult  for  him  to  take  hold  of  real  work,  and  to  work  even  at  the 
average  rate. 

We  are  now  operating  our  plant,  employing  normally  about  160 
men  per  each  eight-hour  shift,  upon  an  eight-hour  day  basis  or  forty- 
eight  hours  per  week.  This  was  instituted  at  their  request  in  place 
of  a  nine-hour  day,  and  at  that  time  three  eight-hour  shifts  were  or- 
ganized, operating  twenty-four  hours  per  day.  Absolutely  no  bene- 
ficial results  have  ever  been  noticed.  Take  the  little  matter  of  quit- 
ting at  the  end  of  the  day;  it  takes  just  as  much  effort  as  it  did  before 
to  make  the  men  work  until  the  whistle  blows,  they  having  just  as  much 
tendency  to  stop  several  minutes  before  the  whistle  blows  and  begin 
to  clean  up. 

Our  production  per  man-hour  has  actually  dropped  off,  but  this 
may  be  partly  due  to  the  general  unrest  and  the  efforts  of  the  labor 
unions  to  prevent  a  man  from  doing  a  full  day's  work. 

A  shoe  machinery  manufacturer  stated: 

When  we  dropped  to  50  hours  per  week  some  two  years  ago,  we 
saw  no  improvement  in  efficiency  or  in  the  quality  of  the  work  pro- 
duced, but  we  have  experienced  a  falling  off  in  production  per  hour 
which  has  been  more  or  less  general  ever  since  we  reduced  our  running 
time  from  52^  hours,  and  our  experience,  in  some  cases  at  least,  is  that 
men  now  working  48  hours  per  week  who  formerly  worked  52^  hours 
per  week,  and  who  are  now  getting  much  more  for  48  hours  than  they 
did  for  52>2  hours,  actually  are  producing  less  work  per  hour  and  have 
much  less  interest  in  their  work  than  formerly. 

67 


While  we  do  not  claim  that  the  reduction  in  hours  is  the  cause  of 
this  condition,  we  are  positive  in  our  belief  that  the  reduction  in 
hours  has  had  no  tendency  to  improve  that  condition,  but  has 
worked  otherwise. 

A  manufacturer  of  locomotive  cranes  stated: 

Total  reduction  in  output  was  about  25%,  with  all  but  10%  due 
to  other  causes. 

An  establishment  manufacturing  drills  and  lathes  reported: 

Our  records  show  about  a  27%  falling  off  in  production,  but  we  at- 
tribute 20%  of  this  to  slowing  up  of  business  and  labor  unrest. 

Decrease  in  Output — Amount  Not  Stated 

Twenty-four  establishments  reported  a  decrease  in  output 
accompanying  the  change  in  hours,  but  did  not  give  the 
amount  of  such  decrease. 


Conclusions   for  Metal  Manufacturing 

1.  Over  one-third  of  the  metal  manufacturing  establish- 
ments studied  were  able  to  increase  hourly  output  on  a  sched- 
ule of  48  hours  or  less,  half  of  this  number  sufficiently  to  main- 
tain or  increase  the  production  obtained  on  their  previous 
schedule  of  hours. 

2.  .  Although  most  of  the  plants  investigated  were  oper- 
ating on  a  48-hour  week,  practically  the  same  proportion  of 
establishments  increased  or  decreased  hourly  output  on  the 
45-hour  or  44-hour  week  as  on  the  48-hour  week. 

3.  The  ability  of  a  plant  to  increase  hourly  output  de- 
pended largely  upon  the  kind  of  work  performed.  In  many  of 
the  plants  requiring  heavy  physical  labor,  it  was  possible  for 
the  workers  to  increase  their  efficiency  on  the  shorter  schedule 
of  hours.  In  other  branches  of  the  industry  where  light  ma- 
chine operations  predominated,  the  amount  of  handwork  as 
contrasted  with  more  purely  automatic  machine  work  in  any 
process  largely  determined  the  ability  of  the  workers  to  in- 
crease hourly  output. 

4.  Marked  changes  in  output,  however,  were  in  most 
cases    influenced    by    other    important    factors.      Increased 

68 


efficiency  in  methods  of  management  and  the  installation  of 
new  machinery  were  directly  responsible  for  large  increases  in 
production. 

5.  The  piece-rate  system  was  apparently  more  conducive 
to  increased  efficiency  than  was  the  day-rate  system  of  wage 
payment  in  the  plants  where  the  work  was  of  such  a  nature 
that  piecework  could  be  advantageously  used.  In  many  cases 
pieceworkers  are  reported  as  maintaining  their  previous  weekly 
output,  whereas  dayworkers  showed  a  substantial  decrease  in 
production.  In  half  of  the  establishments,  however,  very  few 
or  no  pieceworkers  were  reported.  Many  of  the  plants  re- 
ported a  bonus  system  in  place  of  piece-rates,  which  in  certain 
cases  proved  an  incentive  to  increase  production. 

6.  In  this  as  in  other  industries  the  morale  of  the  workers 
evidently  had  a  very  direct  bearing  upon  the  ability  of  a  plant 
to  maintain  output.  Increased  contentment  of  workers  was 
reported  in  most  of  the  establishments  where  hourly  output 
was  increased,  and  greater  dissatisfaction  of  workers  in  those 
establishments  which  reported  a  falling  off  in  hourly  as  well 
as  weekly  output.  For  the  most  part  those  establishments 
reporting  no  change  in  hourly  output  reported  also  no  change 
in  the  attitude  of  the  workers. 

General  Opinion  on  Length  of  Work  Week 

The  opinion  of  the  various  manufacturers  on  the  hours-of- 
work  problem  represented  only  their  individual  experiences 
with  the  different  schedules  of  hours,  but  were  illuminating 
insofar  as  they  showed  the  varying  problems  in  special 
branches  of  the  industry. 

A  manufacturer  of  marine  engines  expressed  the  opinion 
that  an  eight-hour  day  was  unnecessarily  short  for  the  special- 
ized kind  of  work  in  his  plant: 

During  the  war  we  operated  our  plant  on  a  44-hour  base  week  and 
55-hour  working  week,  paying  overtime  for  hours  over  a  forty-four 
hour  week.  After  the  war,  when  our  production  had  satisfied  the 
most  acute  demands  for  delivery,  we  eliminated  overtime.  We  put 
the  question  to  our  men  of  remaining  on  a  44-hour  week  on  straight 
time  or  a  48-hour  week  on  straight  time,  and  our  men  elected  the  48- 
hour  week  on  straight  time. 

69 


You  will  note  from  the  figures  we  have  given  that  our  works  man- 
ager estimates  that  a  55-hour  week  would  be  most  satisfactory.  This 
is  based  on  the  assumption  that  this  would  be  most  satisfactory  to 
our  men.  In  the  writer's  opinion,  it  is  impossible  to  lay  down  a  defi- 
nite number  of  hours  per  week  for  all  men  in  any  particular  industry, 
either  from  the  viewpoint  of  maximum  efficiency  of  production  or  the 
viewpoint  of  fatigue  or  health.  In  our  particular  case,  we  are  really 
not  manufacturers,  from  the  standpoint  of  multiple  production.  Many 
of  our  machining  processes  are  conducted  on  large  pieces,  with  several 
hours  in  each  process.  There  is  opportunity  in  the  bulk  of  our  work 
for  long  periods  of  rest  between  operations.  Accordingly,  it  is  not 
possible  for  a  man  to  become  fatigued  to  the  extent  that  is  true  in 
operations  in  the  automobile  industry,  for  instance.  The  beginning 
of  the  year  1919,we  established  our  own  dispensary  and  medical  service 
and  gave  a  far  greater  degree  of  attention  to  safety  work  and  the 
health  conditions  of  employment  of  our  men.  Accordingly,  there 
was  a  considerable  reduction  in  the  number  of  accidents  and  a  tre- 
mendous reduction  in  the  seriousness  of  these  accidents. 

We  beUeve  that  in  all  cases  of  work  which  involve  practically  con- 
tinuous operations,  the  eight-hour  day  is  long  enough.  For  example,  we 
find  that  that  is  as  long  as  a  man  can  effectively  work  in  our  foundry, 
and  that  he  actually  does  suffer  from  fatigue  when  worked  a  greater 
number  of  hours.  Furthermore,  much  depends  on  whether  the  men 
are  driven  or  not,  that  is,  whether  process  work  in  the  plant  is  of 
such  a  character  that  the  men  must  actually  keep  up  to  a  certain 
rate  of  production  or  interrupt  the  entire  process.  There  is  no  doubt 
but  what  men  become  fatigued  more  readily  under  these  conditions, 
and  only  the  best  physical  types  can  continue  without  frequent  ab- 
sences or  an  increase  in  accidents. 

An  establishment  making  bronze  bearings  supported  the 
eight-hour  day  for  that  particular  kind  of  work  because  of  the 
fatigue  element  involved: 

Our  impression  of  the  eight-hour  day  covers  a  continuous  period  of 
nearly  five  years,  and  in  our  particular  business  we  feel  that  it  is 
the  ideal  day.  In  reality  we  work  8^  hours  per  day  and  one-half  day 
Saturday,  making  48  hours  per  week. 

We  feel  that  each  business  is  slightly  different,  and  the  nature  of  the 
business  must  be  taken  into  consideration  when  the  hours  of  work 
are  planned. 

Most  of  our  work  is  fairly  tiring,  from  a  physical  standpoint,  and 
we  believe  that  this  number  of  hours  is  sufficient  to  enable  the  men  to 
do  a  good  reasonable  day's  work,  and  yet  not  so  long  as  to  overtire 
them. 

We  have  a  few  men,  like  watchmen,  who  have  absolutely  nothing  to 
do  but  open  a  gate,  or  sit  around  and  read  most  of  the  day,  and  these 

70 


n  en  work  twelve  hours  per  day,  which  we  feel  is  consistent  with  the 
eight  hours  that  the  eight-hour  man  is  working  on  a  job  requiring 
considerable  physical  energy. 

There  are  some  few  very  intensive  jobs,  such  as  in  furnace  rooms 
of  certain  lines  of  industry,  where  the  physical  exertion  is  exceedingly 
strenuous,  and  we  imagine  that  something  less  than  eight  hours  should 
constitute  a  day's  work,  although  we  have  had  no  experience  in  this 
line  and  would  not  care  to  venture  an  opinion. 

A  manufacturer  of  roller  bearings  also  recorded  that  in  his 
opinion  the  48-hour  week  was  most  satisfactory  in  industries 
of  that  general  nature: 

Our  experience  leads  us  to  believe  that  a  reduction  to  48  hours  in 
industries  similar  to  ours  is  advantageous,  increases  the  hourly  rate  of 
production,  benefits  the  health  of  the  employee,  and  improves  the 
morale  of  the  factory  as  a  whole. 

It  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  say  in  any  particular  industry  that 
the  eight-hour  day  is  ideal,  and  prove  it  conclusively.  We  are,  how- 
ever, convinced,  from  our  experience,  that  any  day  materially  shorter 
than  eight  hours  is  not  beneficial  in  our  line  of  work. 

Two  establishments  reported  a  tendency  of  labor  to  work  a 
greater  number  of  hours. 

One,  a  machine  manufacturer,  reported: 

There  seems  to  be  a  pronounced  tendency  among  workers  seeking 
employment  to  increase  the  number  of  hours.  Short  hours  appeal  to 
women  who  have  other  means  of  support.  Male  workers  are  now  ask- 
ing more  particularly  how  many  hours  per  day  we  work,  rather  than 
the  price  per  hour.    We  find  this  condition  even  among  union  men. 

The  other,  a  manufacturer  of  stationary  engines,  stated: 

Under  our  present  conditions  the  eight-hour  day  works  very  satis- 
factorily, in  that  we  are  able  to  operate  our  plant  sixteen  hours  each 
day.  For  the  past  several  months,  a  great  many  of  our  men  have  made 
the  request  to  be  allowed  to  work  ten  hours  per  day.  They  were  willing 
to  do  so  on  straight  time.  In  checking  over  the  pay-rolls  for  last  month 
I  find  that  20%  of  our  machine  operators,  40%  of  the  floor  men,  and 
50%  of  the  blacksmiths,  all  pattern  makers,  and  50%  of  the  wood- 
workers worked  ten  hours  per  day  of  their  own  volition.  This  con- 
vinces me  that  they  do  not  feel  that  ten  hours  is  excessive. 

A  manufacturer  of  sewing  machines  advocated  the  50-hour 
week: 

I  believe  the  length  of  time  an  operator  should  work  depends  upon 
the  nature  of  his  or  her  task  and  the  resulting  physical  or  mental  strain 
it  brings  about — in  other  words — the  amount  of  fatigue  each  day. 

71 


This  must  necessarily  vary  widely  in  various  occupations,  and  speaking 
only  of  the  occupations  in  this  plant,  which  can  be  generally  described 
as  light  machining  and  assembly  operations,  I  believe  48  hours  a  week 
is  unnecessarily  short.  The  investment  in  plant  equipment  for  highly 
technical  operations  such  as  ours,  and  such  as  is  largely  found  in  this 
kind  of  work,  is  so  great  that  48  hours  a  week  is  too  short  an  operating 
time.  The  result  is  higher  first  costs  due  to  the  additional  overhead. 
If  the  human  being  were  benefited  by  this  shortened  operating  period 
the  increased  costs  would  be  well  worth  while.  I  cannot  see  that  they 
are. 

Our  experience  in  operating  all  this  machinery,  first  on  a  54  hours  a 
week  basis,  and  then  on  a  48  hours  a  week  basis,  is,  to  put  it  conserva- 
tively, that  we  lose  five  hours  production  per  week.  The  advocates  of 
the  shorter  week  reply  that  the  investment  can  be  turned  over  by 
working  in  shifts;  but  in  practice  this  is  not  feasible.  Some  continuous 
operations,  like  furnaces,  can  work  in  shifts,  but  machining  and 
assembling  operations  can  do  so  only  at  a  decided  disadvantage,  assum- 
ing the  help  can  be  obtained  to  fill  the  shifts.  Another  trouble  here 
steps  in — our  social  structure  is  such  that  everybody  wants  to  work, 
play  and  rest  during  the  same  periods  of  the  day,  with  the  result  that 
because  of  our  city  transportation  facilities,  those  who  may  be  willing 
to  work  in  the  out-of-the-ordinary  time  shifts  cannot  reach  their  job. 

For  welfare  reasons  I  believe  the  Saturday  half-holiday  the  year 
round  is  greatly  to  be  desired,  and,  looking  at  the  subject  from  every 
angle,  my  standard  time  for  industries  of  the  character  of  which  I  am 
speaking  would  be  the  50-hour  week,  operating  nine  hours  five  days, 
and  five  hours  Saturday  morning. 

A  shoe  machinery  manufacturing  concern  stated: 

We  believe  that  m  a  manufacturmg  plant  like  our  own  we  have  gone 
below  the  safety  line  in  hours.  The  best  service  we  ever  obtained  was 
on  52_5^  hours  per  week. 

A  large  automobile  establishment  favored  the  eight-hour 
day. 

Under  normal  conditions,  that  is,  where  the  worker  is  willing  to  give 
his  best  effort,  I  believe  the  eight-hour  day  will  give  us  results  equal 
at  least  to  the  nine  or  ten-hour  day,  owing  to  the  greater  efficiency  of 
the  workmen. 


72 


VIII 

MISCELLANEOUS    MANUFACTURING    INDUSTRIES 

Data  were  secured  from  94  establishments,  representing  16 
miscellaneous  industries,  and  employing  about  56,861  workers. 
Those  establishments  were  included  in  this  group  which 
were  too  few  in  number  to  be  considered  representative 
of  the  industry  to  which  they  belonged.  The  various  indus- 
tries, however,  have  been  treated  somewhat  in  detail,  so  far 
as  possible,  in  order  to  show  any  special  tendencies  in  them. 

The  various  industries  represented  in  this  group,  and  the 
number  of  establishments  in  each  industry,  are  listed  below: 

Rubber  Products  (druggists'  rubber  goods,  rubber  footwear,  tires, 

tubes,  rubber  mechanical  goods,  brake  linings)    15 

Knit  Goods  15 

Clothing  (suspenders,  neckwear,  elastic  webs,  corsets,  working 

clothes,  shirts,  trousers)    14 

Paper  Products 10 

Dyeing  and  Finishing    9 

Jute 7 

Lumber    5 

Food  Products  (biscuits,  candy  and  sugar)  4 

Paints  and  Varnishes 4 

Furniture  and  Interior  Fixtures 3 

Insulated  Wire    3 

Brushes    1 

Harness    1 

Hardware  and  Advertising  Specialties    1 

Inks    1 

Printing 1 

Total 94 

Changes  in  Work-week  Schedules 

Of  the  94  establishments,  72  reduced  to  48  hours  per  week. 
Schedules  of  the  remainder  varied  from  47  to  43}i  hours. 

The  5>^-day  week  prevailed  throughout  practically  the 
whole  group. 

The  previous  work-week  for  a  majority  of  the  establish- 
ments reducing  to  44  hours  was  48  hours.     In  the  72  estab- 

73 


lishments  which  reduced  to  48  hours  per  week,  the  previous 
schedule  of  hours  ranged  from  49 J^  to  60  hours.  Seventy-two 
hours  per  week  was  the  schedule  of  one  plant  that  changed 
from  a  two-shift  to  a  three-shift  basis.  In  most  cases,  how- 
ever, the  change  was  from  a  54-hour  week. 

Changes  in  Output  Accompanying  Reduction  in  Hours 

Of  the  94  miscellaneous  manufacturing  establishments,  six 
succeeded  in  increasing  weekly  output,  seven  were  able  to 
maintain  weekly  output,  and  81  suffered  a  decrease  in  weekly 
output.  Twenty-three  plants  showed  a  decrease  in  weekly 
output  less  than  proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours;  35 
plants  maintained  hourly  output  and  therefore  decreased 
weekly  output  proportionately  to  the  reduction  in  hours. 
Five  plants  decreased  weekly  output  more  than  in  proportion 
to  the  reduction  in  hours. 

Changes  in  output  in  this  group  are  shown  in  the  following 
diagram: 


IMCREASED 


Diagram  8:  Changes  in 
Weekly  Output  Per  Worker 
Accompanying  a  Reduction  to 
A  Week  of  48  Hours  or  Less: 
Miscellaneous  Manufacturing 
Industries. 

94  Establishments 


In  Table  15  are  shown  the  number  of  establishments  and 
percentage  of  total  employees  in  all  establishments  included 
in  each  group  reporting  changes  in  output: 

74 


TABLE  15:  MISCELLANEOUS  MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES: 
CHANGES  IN  WEEKLY  OUTPUT  PER  WORKER  ACCOMPANYING 
REDUCTION  TO  A  WEEK  OF  48  HOURS  OR  LESS 

(National  Industrial  Conference  Board) 


,    Changes  In  Output 

Establish- 
ments 
Reporting 

Percentage 
of  Total 

Employees 
in  Group 

Increased 

Maintained 

6 

7 

23 
35 

5 
18 

7.2 
3.4 

Decrease,  less  than  proportional  to  the  reduction 
in  hours    ....        

45.5 

Decrease,  proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours 
Decrease,  greater  than  proportional  to  the  reduc- 
tion in  hours  .    .            .... 

22.8 
4.0 

Decrease,  amount  not  stated 

17.1 

Total 

94 

100.0 

48-Hour  Week 

The  following  table  shows  how  output  changed   in  those 
plants  reducing  to  a  48-hour  week: 

TABLE  16:  MISCELLANEOUS  MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES: 
CHANGES  IN  WEEKLY  OUTPUT  PER  WORKER  ACCOMPANYING 
REDUCTION  TO  A  48-HOUR  SCHEDULE 


(National  Industrial  Conference  Board) 


Changes  In  Output 

Estabhsh- 

ments 
Reporting 

Percentage 
of  Total 

Employees 
in  Group 

Increased     

4 
4 

18 

27 

4 
15 

9.9 

Maintained 

3.6 

Decrease,  less  than  proportional  to  the  reduction 
in  hours 

Decrease,  proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours    . 

Decrease,  greater  than  proportional  to  the  reduc- 
tion in  hours 

Decrease,  amount  not  stated 

25.4 
31.2 

5.0 
24.9 

Total 

72 

100.0 

45-Hour  Group 

Changes  in  output  in  the  group  of  plants  reducing  to  a  45- 
hour  week  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 

75 


TABLE  17:  MISCELLANEOUS  MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES: 
CHANGES  IN  WEEKLY  OUTPUT  PER  WORKER  ACCOMPANYING 
REDUCTION  TO  A  45-HOUR  SCHEDULE 

(National  Industrial  Conference  Board) 


Changes  In  Output 

Establish- 
ments 
Reporting 

Percentage 
of  Total 

Employees 
in  Group 

Increased 

Maintained 

0 
0 

2 
2 

0 
0 

0.0 
0.0 

Decrease,  less  than  proportional  to  the  reduction 
in  hours 

Decrease,  proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours   . 

Decrease,  greater  than  proportional  to  the  reduc- 
tion in  hours 

95.3 
4.7 

0.0 

Decrease,  amount  not  stated 

0.0 

Total 

4 

100.0 

44-Hour  Week 

The  plants  reducing  to  a  44-hour  week  reported  changes  in 
output  distributed  as  shown  in  the  following  table: 

TABLE  18:  MISCELLANEOUS  MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES: 
CHANGES  IN  WEEKLY  OUTPUT  PER  WORKER  ACCOMPANYING 
REDUCTION  TO  A  44-HOUR  SCHEDULE 

(National  Industrial  Conference  Board) 


Changes  In  Output 

Establish- 
ments 
Reporting 

Percentage 
of  Total 

Employees 
in  Group 

Increased     

Maintained 

Decrease,  less  than  proportional  to  the  reduction 
in  hours 

2 
2 

3 
6 

0 
1 

11.6 

15.8 

49.4 

Decrease,  proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours   . 
Decrease,  greater  than  proportional  to  the  reduc- 
tion in  hours 

18.4 
0.0 

Decrease,  amount  not  stated 

4.8 

Total 

14 

100.0 

Besides  those  included  in  the  above  hour-groups,  four  estab- 
lishments reduced  to  various  other  weekly  schedules. 

76 


One  establishment,  reducing  to  47  hours  per  week,  reported 
a  decrease  in  weekly  output,  but  did  not  state  the  amount  of 
the  decrease. 

One  establishment,  reducing  to  46>^  hours  per  week,  re- 
ported that  weekly  output  was  maintained  on  this  shorter 
schedule.  Hourly  output  was  increased  sufficiently  to  offset 
the  reduction  in  hours. 

One  establishment,  reducing  to  43 >3  hours  per  week,  re- 
ported a  decrease  in  output  but  did  not  state  the  amount  of 
such  decrease. 

One  establishment,  reducing  to  ATjA  hours  for  men  and  45 
hours  for  women,  reported  a  decrease  in  output  greater  than 
proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours,  or  a  decrease  in  hourly 
as  well  as  weekly  output. 

Analysis  of  Changes  in  Output 

Output  Increased 

The  six  establishments  reporting  an  increase  in  weekly 
output  covered  several  of  the  miscellaneous  industries, 
namely,  clothing,  bleaching  and  dyeing,  rubber  footwear,  and 
paints  and  varnishes.  Four  were  in  the  48-hour  group  and 
two  in  the  44-hour  group. 

All  but  one  of  the  six  establishments  reported  a  large  pro- 
portion of  pieceworkers  or  a  bonus  system  of  wage  payment. 
All  establishments  reported  well-contented  workers. 

Two  establishments  making  workingmen's  clothing  were 
able  to  increase  weekly  output  on  a  week  of  44  hours.  The 
workers  were  able  to  speed  up  production  under  the  shorter 
hours  because  of  the  handwork  character  of  the  manufacturing 
processes.  A  large  percentage  of  the  employees  were  on  piece- 
work. 

The  manager  of  one  of  these  establishments  made  the  fol- 
lowing statement: 

We  formerly  worked  ten  hours  a  day,  then  reduced  it  to  nine,  then 
to  eight,  and  now  work  44  hours  per  week.  According  to  the  old 
ten-hour  plan,  we  found  that  nearly  every  week  each  girl  took  half 
a  day  off,  and  we  were  among  the  first  in  the  city  to  inaugurate  the 
Saturday  half-holiday,  first  closing  at  four,  then  at  one,  then  at  12:30 
and  finally  at  twelve  o'clock.    I  often  noticed  that  from  5:30  to  six  the 

77 


help  were  completely  worn  out  and  that  they  were  dull  and  unfit  for 
work  the  next  day.  We  voluntarily  changed  the  hours  from  ten  to 
nine,  more  than  twenty  years  ago.  The  writer  was  one  of  the  com- 
mittee to  adopt  eight  hours,  and  in  making  the  change  from  nine  to 
eight,  we  actually  got  out  more  work  in  eight  hours  than  in  nine;  the 
help  were  fresh,  contented  and  better  satisfied  throughout. 

The  other  establishment  accounted  for  the  increase  in 
output  as  follows: 

I  try  to  study  my  help  and  encourage  them  to  make  all  they  can, 
making  them  feel  that  they  are  part  of  the  concern.  I  am  glad  to  say 
that  we  are  turning  out  10  per  cent  more  work  in  44  hours  than  we  did 
in  48.  The  help  are  always  fresh  and  they  go  about  their  work  with  a 
vim,  and  we  do  not  tolerate  slackers. 

One  bleaching,  dyeing  and  printing  establishment  reported 
an  increase  in  weekly  output  which  the  management  inclined 
to  credit  to  a  new  system  of  industrial  democracy  instituted 
at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  the  48-hour  week. 

A  plant  manufacturing  rubber  footwear  was  able  to  increase 
previous  weekly  output  by  means  of  improvements  in  ma- 
chinery and  in  methods  of  management.  The  irregular  hours 
of  pieceworkers  were  also  noted  as  explaining  the  maintenance 
of  production.  This  plant  was  one  of  a  group  of  eighteen 
similar  plants  under  the  same  management,  and  the  experience 
of  this  establishment  was  cited  as  indicating  roughly  what 
happened  in  the  whole  group. 

Our  production  both  per  hour  and  per  week  per  person  has  increased 
considerably,  and  this  increase  can  be  laid  almost  entirely  at  the  door 
•  of  new  methods.  In  our  industry  employees  go  home  when  finished 
with  their  piecework  and  there  was  considerable  short-time  on  54-hour 
basis.  On  going  to  a  48-hour  basis,  this  amount  of  going  out  early 
was  reduced,  so  that  we  are  perhaps  peculiar  in  the  results  that  we 
got  from  a  48-hour  week. 

Two  establishments,  making  paints  and  varnishes,  were 
able  to  increase  weekly  output  on  the  48-hour  weekly  schedule. 
No  pieceworkers  were  employed  in  these  two  plants.  One  was 
a  small  establishment  employing  only  nine  workers.  The 
management  stated  that  the  work  in  this  plant  required  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  hand  lifting  and  that  the  better  physical 
condition  of  the  workers  enabled  them  to  increase  output 
under  the  shorter  week.  The  quality  was  also  somewhat 
improved. 

78 


'^  The  other  establishment  granted  a  bonus  to  employees  for 
thrift  and  length  of  service.  This  plant  had  a  "Congressional 
Plan"  of  shop  committee. 

The  factors  which  tended  to  increase  efficiency  so  markedly 
in  this  group  of  establishments  were  (1)  the  fatigue  element 
in  certain  industries  which  made  it  possible  to  do  more  and 
better  work  in  a  shorter  than  in  a  longer  day,  (2)  contented 
employees,  (3)  improvements  in  equipment  and  methods  of 
manufacturing,  and  (4)  piece-rate  or  bonus  systems  of  wage 
payment. 

Output  Maintained 

The  seven  establishments  which  were  able  to  maintain 
weekly  output  included  clothing,  rubber,  knit  goods,  jute, 
dyeing  and  finishing,  and  paint  and  varnish  manufacturing 
plants.  Of  these,  four  were  operating  48  hours,  two  44  hours, 
and  one  463/^  hours. 

A  large  proportion  of  pieceworkers  was  reported  by  all  but 
two  of  these  establishments.  These  two  plants  employed 
bonus  systems.  All  of  the  establishments  reported  the  workers 
well  satisfied,  or  with  increased  contentment  due  largely  to 
the  shorter  hours.  In  two  plants  the  increase  in  output  was 
probably  due  in  part  to  improved  machinery  and  to  a  re- 
duction in  the  number  of  styles  manufactured. 

The  two  clothing  establishments  reported  that  their  weekly 
output  was  about  the  same  on  a  44-hour  week  as  on  a  48-hour 
week.  One  reported  a  few  improvements  in  machinery. 
Both  employed  over  75%  pieceworkers. 

An  establishment  manufacturing  mechanical  rubber  goods 
reported  its  experience  in  the  following  statement: 

Ours  is  the  only  rubber  factory  in  the  Northwest  that  has  had  any 
continuous  operation  over  a  period  of  years.  Consequently,  there  is 
no  rubber  labor  market  here  and  the  bulk  of  our  help  has  had  to  be 
trained  in  our  own  plant.  There  is,  therefore,  no  organization  among 
the   employees  either   from   within   or  without. 

In  shortening  our  hours  of  labor  from  54  hours  per  week  three  or 
four  years  ago,  to  46^4^  hours  now,  we  have  to  a  large  extent  simply 
anticipated  the  expected  request  of  our  employees  and  have  endeav- 
ored to  meet  the  shortened  week  by  improved  efficiency.  The  most 
satisfactory  change  we  have  made  has  been  the  inauguration  of  a  five- 
day    per   week    schedule,   leaving    the    workmen  free  for  48  hours, 

79 


leaving  the  factory  free  for  repairs,  and  giving  the  office  a  breathing 
spell  in  which  to  check  up  on  Saturdays. 

A  large  woolen  hosiery  manufacturing  establishment  re- 
ported the  following  experience  with  a  48-hour  week: 

It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  account  for  the  fact  that  as  large  a  pro- 
duction has  been  maintained  under  the  48-hour  schedule  as  under 
54  hours  with  practically  the  same  number  of  employees.  It  is  the 
writer's  opinion  that  the  average  piece-rate  worker  has  in  mind  to 
earn  about  so  much  a  week,  whether  the  hours  are  48  or  more.  This 
applies  not  only  to  piece-rate  workers  but  to  hour-rate  workers,  there 
being  apparently  a  general  speedmg-up  throughout  our  plant  when 
the  change  in  hours  was  made.  This  has  been  maintained  up  to  the 
present  time  in  every  department,  with  the  possible  exception  of  card- 
ing, where  the  output  depends  largely  on  the  speed  of  the  machines 
rather  than  the  speed  of  workers.  That  full  production  is  bemg  main- 
tained generally  and  in  some  departments  by  the  same  identical  per- 
sonnel of  employees  as  under  the  54-hour  schedule,  is  clearly  shown 
by  our  figures. 

We  simplified  our  conditions  somewhat  by  marketing  fewer  styles, 
and  also  have  made  some  progress  in  standardizing  the  put-up  of  our 
goods. 

Approximately  90%  of  the  workers  in  this  plant  were  on  a 
piece-rate  basis,  and  a  5%  attendance  bonus  had  been  insti- 
tuted. 

A  jute  manufacturing  establishment,  reporting  that  weekly 
output  was  maintained,  operated  part  of  the  plant  on  two 
shifts  per  day  and  had  about  75%  pieceworkers.  This  estab- 
lishment had  a  shop  committee  which  assisted  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  plant.  The  agent  of  this  plant  reported  that  all 
departments  were  producing  about  the  same  amount  of  mate- 
rial on  the  48-hour  week  as  they  did  on  54  hours. 

The  two  remaining  establishments  maintaining  output 
operated  on  a  48-hour  week,  the  one  a  dyeing  and  finishing 
plant,  and  the  other  a  paint  and  varnish  manufacturing  estab- 
lishment. No  pieceworkers  were  employed  by  either  estab- 
lishment, but  both  reported  bonus  systems.  Regarding  its 
attendance  bonus,  the  management  of  the  dyeing  and  finishing 
plant  said: 

This  has  had  a  pronounced  effect  in  making  the  employees  regular 
in  their  attendance  and  insures  their  being  at  work  at  their  machines 
when  the  whistle  blows. 

80 


Less   Than  Proportional  Decrease  in  Output 

The  group  of  23  establishments  reporting  a  decrease  in 
weekly  output  less  than  proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours, 
included  clothing,  dyeing  and  finishing,  candy,  jute,  knit 
goods,  harness,  ink,  paper,  and  rubber  manufacturing  plants. 

Eighteen  of  these  establishments  reduced  to  48  hours  per 
week,  two  to  45  hours  per  week,  and  three  to  44  hours  per 
week. 

Two-thirds  of  the  establishments  reported  a  majority  of 
pieceworkers,  and  a  large  number  of  these  establishments 
reported  a  greater  increase  in  the  hourly  output  of  these  work- 
ers than  of  the  dayworkers.  In  seven  cases  this  increase  was 
sufficient  to  maintain  previous  weekly  piecework  output.  The 
other  plants  for  the  most  part  reported  an  increase  of  hourly 
output  in  handwork,  but  no  increase  of  hourly  output  in 
machine  work.  Very  few  establishments  reported  the  same 
general  decrease  throughout  all  departments  of  the  plant. 

With  one  exception,  all  establishments  reported  either  no 
change  or  an  increase  in  the  contentment  of  the  workers. 

In  a  number  of  establishments  the  speed  of  the  machinery 
had  been  increased  as  an  aid  to  production. 

Nine  establishments  reported  some  form  of  bonus,  which 
evidently  proved  an  incentive  to  increase  production.  In 
most  cases  both  hourly  wages  and  piece-rates  were  increased, 
but  three  establishments  reported  piece-rates  unchanged, 
which  may  have  had  a  bearing  on  the  maintenance  of  output 
by  the  pieceworkers  in  these  plants. 

The  management  of  one  dyeing  and  finishing  establishment, 
where  only  the  hours  for  women  were  reduced,  stated: 

We  do  not  find  that  the  women  produce  as  much  in  48  hours  as 
they  did  in  54,  although  the  decreased  production,  because  of  the  loss 
of  six  hours,  is  not  proportional.  The  pieceworkers  on  the  whole  have 
made  a  better  showing  in  production  than  those  on  hourly  rate. 
Probably  60%  of  our  girls  are  on  piecework  and  40%  on  hourly  basis. 

One  ink  and  carbon  paper  manufacturer  emphasized  the 
influence  of  handwork  and  piece-rates  on  the  maintenance  of 
production: 

The  women  are  really  the  key  to  the  production.    They  are  the  finish- 
ers, and  are  on  piecework,  and  the  function  of  the  men  is  almost  exclu- 

81 


sively  to  keep  the  women  supplied.  Handwork  predominates  in  our 
production,  although  we  have  a  varied  line  of  semi-automatic  and 
other  machinery.  Where  much  machinery  and  particularly  auto- 
matic machinery  is  used,  the  production  is  decreased  where  time  is 
reduced,  but  where  hand  labor  is  largely  used  there  is  always  some  slack 
that  can  be  taken  up.  The  reduction  in  hours  did  not  make  any  dif- 
ference in  the  production  of  the  experienced  and  best  pieceworkers 
among  the  girls,  but  this  is  not  true  of  the  newer  girls  taken  on,  who 
simply  adapted  themselves  to  the  time  they  found  in  force. 

The  following  statement  was  made  by  an  establishment 
manufacturing  fine  knit  underwear.  This  establishment  re- 
ported only  a  slightly  increased  hourly  output: 

This  company  changed  from  a  54-hour  to  a  48-hour  schedule  the 
year  before  the  war.  Our  reason  for  doing  so  was  that  we  found  our 
employees  would  be  better  satisfied  with  that  schedule,  and  we  had 
a  hope  that  practically  the  same  amount  of  work  would  be  done  in 
the  shorter  week  as  was  done  in  the  longer  one.  At  the  time  the 
change  was  made,  an  increase  in  pay,  both  in  piecework  rates  and 
for  day  labor,  was  given,  practically  equal  to  the  reduction  in  hours, 
with  the  idea  that  if  the  much-talked-of  principle  of  being  able  to  do 
as  much  work  in  eight  hours  as  is  usually  done  in  nine  were  true,  we 
would  be  giving  our  employees  the  benefit  of  that  extra  earningcapacity. 

We  have  always  had,  and  are  having  today,  the  best  support  from 
those  we  hire.  Our  people  are  not  open  to  the  criticism  of  bemg 
"slackers,"  but  a  term  of  years  has  proven  that,  in  the  knitted-un- 
derwear business,  the  idea  of  domg  as  much  work  in  eight  hours  as 
in  nine  is  preposterous. 

We  are  losing  about  eight  per  cent,  of  our  production  by  the  change 
of  time.  While  employees  prefer  the  shorter  working  day,  and  we 
expect  to  continue  it,  we  do  not  believe  it  added  in  any  perceptible 
way  to  their  physical  or  mental  welfare.  We  employ  about  400  hands, 
about  75%  of  them  being  women,  and  fully  that  percentage  working 
on  a  piecework  basis. 

Another  establishment  manufacturing  knit  underwear  and 
sweaters  made  the  following  statement: 

Our  output  decreased  slightly  less  than  5%  over  a  stretch  of  prac- 
tically a  year.  The  decrease  in  working  time  being  about  6%,  there 
is  a  variation  of  1%,  which  is  chargeable  to  slightly  increased  effi- 
ciency. The  loss  of  5%  in  production  is  directly  attributable  to  the 
decrease  in  working  hours. 

Proportional  Decrease  in  Output 

The  35  establishments  reporting  a  decrease  in  output  pro- 
portional to  the  reduction  in  hours,  included:  brushes,  clothing, 
dyeing  and  finishing,  biscuits,  furniture  and  interior  fixtures, 

82 


insulated  wire,  lumber  and  woodworking,  paper  products, 
printing,  rubber  products,  jute,  and  knit  goods  manufacturing 
industries. 

Twenty-seven  of  the  35  plants  reduced  to  48  hours  per 
week,  two  to  45  hours  per  week,  and  six  to  44  hours. 

With  the  exception  of  the  clothing,  rubber,  jute  and  knit 
goods  establishments,  the  industries  in  this  group  employed 
very  few  or  no  pieceworkers. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  establishments  reported  that 
machine  processes  predominated  and  that,  therefore,  produc- 
tion had  been  reduced  in  proportion  to  the  reduction  in  hours. 
In  a  few  cases  the  speed  of  the  machinery  was  increased,  but 
this  increase  in  speed  seemed  to  have  no  material  effect  upon 
hourly  output.  Most  of  the  establishments  reported  a  general 
decrease  in  production  throughout  the  plant. 

A  large  majority  of  the  establishments  reported  no  change 
in  the  attitude  of  the  workers,  though  evidences  of  general 
labor  unrest  were  noted  in  a  number  of  cases. 

One  paper  manufacturer  described  the  machine-time  char- 
acter of  the  manufacturing  processes  in  his  plant,  as  follows: 
This  plant  manufactures  coated  paper.  We  do  not  make  our  own 
raw  stock.  This  paper  is  run  through  a  coating  machine  and  down 
lines  for  drying,  going  down  the  length  of  the  room  on  one  track, 
around  a  switch,  back  again  the  same  length  of  the  room  on  another 
track,  where  it  is  reeled.  This  machine  can  only  go  at  a  certain  speed. 
Therefore,  taking  off  any  hours  per  week  lessens  the  production  just 
that  much.  From  the  coating  room  the  paper  goes  down  to  the 
finishmg  department  where  it  is  calendered — this  being  entirely  a 
machine  proposition  also — and  goes  at  a  speed  depending  entirely  on 
the  character  of  the  paper  made.  The  shortening  of  the  hours  of  labor 
reduces  the  production  just  as  much.  The  same  is  true  of  the  cutting 
department  where  the  paper  is  cut  from  the  rolls  into  sheets.  Then 
it  goes  to  the  sub-cutting  department  where  it  is  trimmed  on  all 
four  sides  of  the  sheet.     This  is  all  machine  work — all  done  by  men. 

One  clothing  manufacturing  establishment  stated: 

We  do  not  get  any  more  production  in  the  44  hours  of  work  than  we 
did  in  the  same  length  of  time  when  we  worked  54  hours. 

Another  reported: 

As  to  the  operation  of  a  44-hour  week,  we  have  not  noticed  any 
increased  production  per  person  since  we  have  gone  on  this  basis, 
but  in  general  our  figures  show  us  that  we  are  producing  one-twelfth 
less  physical  volume  of  goods  with  the  same  number  of  people  as 
when  we  operated  a  full  48  hours. 

83 


Four  lumber  mills  located  in  one  city  on  the  Pacific  coast 
reported  a  reduction  from  60  hours  per  week  to  48  hours  per 
week  and  a  decrease  in  weekly  output  proportional  to  the 
reduction  in  hours. 

A  jute  manufacturing  establishment  reported: 

You  will  note  that  the  reduction  in  output  in  our  plant  is  the  same  as 
the  reduction  in  hours  of  work.  In  other  words,  the  production  is 
limited  by  the  speed  of  the  machines,  which  cannot  be  increased,  and 
by  the  number  of  machines  which  a  worker  can  tend.  Our  experience 
indicates  that  a  worker  can  tend  no  more  machines  in  the  48-hour  week 
than  he  can  in  the  54-hour  week;  therefore,  the  production  is  decreased 
in  proportion  to  the  decrease  in  hours. 

Greater  Than  Proportional  Decrease  in  Output 

The  five  establishments  reporting  a  decrease  in  weekly  out- 
put greater  than  proportional  to  the  reduction  in  hours,  in- 
cluded one  plant  manufacturing  biscuits,  one  manufacturing 
lumber  products,  two  manufacturing  rubber  goods,  and  one 
knit  goods  manufacturing  establishment.  Four  of  the  five 
establishments  were  operating  48  hours;  the  other  473^  hours 
for  men  and  45  hours  for  women. 

Only  two  of  the  five  establishments  reported  the  piece-rate 
system  of  wage  payment.  One  establishment,  a  ci^acker  and 
biscuit  factory,  had  a  large  proportion  of  pieceworkers.  New 
machinery  had  been  installed  which  should  have  increased 
output,  and  a  bonus  was  paid  for  full  attendance,  but  a  de- 
crease was  noted  in  hourly  output  and  also  in  the  quality  of 
production.  The  workers  in  this  plant  were  somewhat  handi- 
capped by  a  poorly-lighted  building,  and  a  large  labor  turnover 
was  reported.  The  management  in  this  case  stated  that  out- 
put would  have  suffered  a  still  greater  loss  if  it  had  not  been 
for  the  pieceworkers. 

A  lumber  mill  reported  its  experience  as  follows: 

Our  experience  is  that  our  production  per  hour  is  not  increased  one 
particle  over  our  ten-hour  production.  We  proved  that  we  are  manu- 
facturing as  much  per  hour  as  we  were  before,  but  not  one  bit  more. 
This  is  true  where  we  are  operating  machinery.  On  the  outside  where 
it  is  simply  a  process  of  handling  by  man  power,  our  production  is  less 
per  hour  than  it  was  on  the  old  ten-hour  system. 

A  plant  manufacturing  fire  hose  reported: 

Our  weekly  output  per  worker  decreased.  It  was  not  possible  for 
us  to  speed  up  the  machines  because  of  their  peculiarity.     Not  only  did 


our  output  for  48  hours  decrease  over  that  of  54  hours,  this  output 
naturally  being  attributed  to  the  shorter  number  of  hours,  but  it  also 
decreased  because,  after  the  machines  were  once  ready  to  run, 
there  were  fewer  hours  to  run  them.  Since  August  first  we 
have  carefully  studied  the  causes  of  decreases  in  production  below  that 
which  would  naturally  come  from  the  decrease  in  working  hours,  and 
we  came  to  the  conclusion  that  we  can  get  back  to  a  normal  produc- 
tion of  48  hours  only  by  changing  our  working  schedule  for  all  men 
to  9yi  hours  per  day  with  no  work  on  Saturday.  This  may  be  a 
peculiarity  in  our  business,  due  to  the  length  of  time  required  for 
vulcanization  of  the  rubber.  On  our  present  schedule  of  8|^  hours  per 
day  there  is  practically  no  work  for  the  last  three  quarters  of  an 
hour,  because  the  vulcanization  heat  cannot  be  completed  before 
closing  time.  We  explained  this  situation  to  our  employees  and  the 
men  unanimously  agreed  to  the  9^  hours  schedule  per  day,  with  no 
work  on  Saturday.  .  .  .  We  do  not  believe  that  a  total  of  54  hours 
works  a  hardship  on  any  employee.  Before  the  48  hour  schedule  went 
into  effect  it  was  stated  that  the  production  would  be  equal  to,  if  not 
greater  than,  the  54  hour  schedule,  because  the  employees  would  be 
in  better  health  and  would  be  able  to  do  their  work  with  more  vigor. 
In  our  particular  case  we  find  that  the  opposite  has  prevailed. 

Three  of  the  five  establishments  in  this  group  reported  dis- 
satisfaction on  the  part  of  the  workers.  One  reported  that 
the  make-ready  was  an  important  item,  and  that  the  actual 
length  of  time  the  machines  were  run  was  decreased  relatively 
more  than  the  nominal  hours. 

Conclusions:  Miscellaneous  Industries 

In  this  study  no  attempt  was  made  to  analyze  the  experi- 
ences of  the  various  individual  industries  represented.  The 
following  findings  with  respect  to  special  industries  may, 
however,    be  noted: 

A  large  number  of  establishments  manufacturing  work- 
ing clothes  showed  remarkable  ability  to  increase  hourly 
output  even  on  a  reduction  to  a  44-hour  week.  Several  estab- 
lishments manufacturing  rubber  goods  were  able  to  increase 
hourly  output  under  a  schedule  somewhat  less  than  48  hours. 
A  relatively  large  number  of  knit  goods  establishments  were 
able  to  increase  hourly  output,  in  only  one  case,  however,  to 
the  extent  of  maintaining  previous  weekly  output. 

A  few  outstanding  features,  moreover,  seemed  to  be  char- 
acteristic of  the  whole  group  of  miscellaneous  industries. 
These  characteristics  may  be  summarized  in  a  few  statements: 

85 


1.  In  those  industries  in  which  output  depended  to  a  large 
extent  upon  the  skill  of  the  worker,  the  various  establishments 
were  better  able  to  maintain  production  under  the  shorter 
hours  than  in  those  industries  where  machine  work  pre- 
dominated. Wherever  the  element  of  fatigue  entered  in, 
either  as  the  result  of  hard  physical  labor  or  of  close  applica- 
tion, shorter  hours  tended  to  decidedly  increase  the  hourly 
efficiency  of  the  workers. 

2.  Piecework  tended  to  increase  hourly  output  unless  the 
rate  of  production  was  controlled  by  the  speed  of  the  ma- 
chinery. 

3.  Wages  in  general  had  no  definite  effect  upon  ability  to 
maintain  output.  In  several  instances  where  an  attendance 
bonus  was  paid,  however,  the  workers  showed  a  tendency  to 
increase  hourly  output. 

General  Opinion  on  Length  of  Work  Week 

The  following  are  excerpts  of  opinion  of  various  individual 
manufacturers  on  the  changed  working  schedule: 

A  dyeing,  printing  and  finishing  establishment  made  the 
following  report: 

I  wish  to  state  that  it  is  my  personal  belief  that  the  54-hour  week  was 
better  adapted  to  our  plant  than  the  48-hour  schedule  now  in  vogue. 
A  print  works  is  somewhat  different  from  other  factories,  because  of 
many  drying  operations  that  are  needed.  Before  we  can  reach  the 
full  speed  of  our  machines,  the  drying  cans  must  be  heated  to  the 
proper  extent,  and  it  is  some  little  time  every  morning  before  we  can 
get  our  full  output  from  machines  of  this  type.  The  same  thing  is 
true  of  the  printing  machines,  from  which  the  very  large  proportion  of 
our  product  is  obtained.  A  short  day  is  detrimental  to  best  results. 
It  takes  a  considerable  length  of  time  to  make  changes  from  one 
pattern  to  another,  or  from  one  color  combination  to  another,  but 
when  we  get  under  full  running  headway  a  good  showing  is  made,  and 
it  is  usually  the  case  that  toward  the  latter  part  of  the  day  the 
printing  machines  run  more  steadily  than  at  any  other  period.  The 
result  is  that  when  we  are  obliged  to  stop  at  four  o'clock,  as  is  the 
case  at  present,  the  loss  of  product  sustained  is  considerable.  This 
fact  is  so  well  recognized  in  many  plants,  both  in  this  country  and 
abroad,  that  it  is  quite  the  usual  custom  to  increase  the  running  time 
the  first  five  days  of  the  week,  and  stop  on  Saturday  altogether. 

It  is  the  general  impression  that  to  start  up  on  Saturday  morning 
is  a  mistake,  as  it  is  well  on  in  the  morning  before  the  machines  can  get 

86 


into  proper  running  order,  and  then  they  are  obliged  to  stop  at  12 
o'clock.  This  makes  such  a  short  day  that,  relatively  speaking,  a 
small  product  is  obtained ,  compared  with  a  full  day's  run .  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  the  extra  time  is  worked  on  the  first  five  days  of  the 
week.  Nearly  every  concern  that  has  tried  this  plan  has  found  that 
better  production  is  a  result.  We  have  not  attempted  it  at  this 
plant,  but  the  writer  had  some  experience  in  this  direction  in  the  plant 
where  he  was  formerly  employed,  and  found  that  it  worked  satisfac- 
torily. 

As  regards  its  being  the  real  wish  of  our  employees  to  work  fewer 
hours — that  is,  to  run  48  hours  per  week  rather  than  a  54 — it  is  my 
impression  that  what  they  are  mainly  after  is  to  work  fewer  hours 
on  regular  time  and  work  the  extra  number  of  hours  and  receive  time 
and  one-half  for  same.  We  find  no  difficulty  now  in  prevailing  upon  our 
help  to  work  extra  hours.  In  fact,  in  many  instances  they  attempt  to 
so  arrange  matters  that  they  will  be  obliged  to  work  extra.  This  was 
not  true  when  regular  rates  only  were  paid  for  overtime  work. 

A  cotton  goods  converting  establishment  stated: 

We  consider  the  48-hour  weekly  basis  very  satisfactory  for  our  own 
plant,  and  we  have  it  divided  in  such  a  manner  that  the  plant  opens  in 
the  morning  at  7:45,  with  a  lunch  period  of  three-quarters  of  an 
hour  at  noon  time,  work  continuing  until  5:15,  with  the  exception 
of  Saturday,  when  the  hours  are  from  7:45  until  12:00.  This  gives 
the  employees  a  half-day  off  each  Saturday,  and  as  near  as  we  can 
find  out,  the  employees  are  perfectly  well  satisfied  with  this  basis. 

A  jute  manufacturer  expressed  the  following  opinion: 
We  do  not  think  that  a  54-hour  week,  such  as  we  had  been  running  in 
Massachusetts  up  to  June  1,  last  year,  was  injuring  the  health  of  any 
of  our  employees;  and  we  are  very  certain  that  production  is  needed 
during  the  reconstruction  period.  We  hope,  however,  that  the 
world  eventually  will  get  on  with  48-hour  week.  It  was  a  bad  time  to 
try  the  experiment,  and  the  constant  pressure  for  a  still  shorter 
week  is  a  very  serious  menace  to  the  prosperity  of  the  country.  We 
believe  positively  that  under  present  conditions  and  in  view  of  the 
prospects  in  the  next  quarter  of  a  century,  the  world  should  work  at 
least  48-hours,  and  that  it  would  be  healthier,  mentally,  morally  and 
spiritually  than  with  a  reduced  workmg  schedule. 

A  knit  goods  manufacturer  reported: 

We  believe  the  problem  of  the  high  cost  of  living  will  never  be 
solved  until  workers  appreciate  that  it  is  their  duty  to  produce  more. 
It  does  not  matter  now  what  the  schedule  of  working  hours  is,  operators 
will  make  still  less  time  and  lower  production.  We  beUeve  that  the 
48-hour  schedule  is  against  the  interest  of  the  workers. 

A  paint  manufiacturing  establishment  reported  as  follows: 

Our  experience  is  that  in  almost  all  lines  of  manufacture  nine  or 
even  ten  hours  of  work  is  not  excessive  nor  too  exhaustive,  and  that 

87 


the  eight-hour  day  not  only  causes  a  smaller  output  on  account  of  less 
hours,  but  has  a  tendency  to  restrict  quantity  of  production  even  in 
the  smaller  number  of  hours  work.  We  judge  from  our  own  experience 
that  while  our  men  are  not  wilhng  to  work  nine  or  ten  hours  as  a 
regular  day,  they  are  perfectly  willing  to  work  eight  hours  with  two 
hours  overtime  at  time  and  a  half,  and  they  strenuously  object  to  our 
cutting  out  overtime,  which  leads  us  to  believe  that  it  is  not  a  question 
of  ten  hours  being  too  long,  but  a  desire  to  get  more  pay.  We,  of 
course,  do  not  expect  them  to  work  ten  hours  for  the  same  pay  as  for 
eight  hours,  but  we  do  think  the  universal  acceptance  of  the  eight- 
hour  day  is  a  bad  thing  for  all  classes. 

A  bleaching  and  finishing  plant  reports  a  preference  for  a 
five-day  week: 

We  should  be  glad  to  run  our  plant  on  a  48-hour  schedule,  to  be 
worked  in  five  days  without  any  work  on  Saturdays.  We  are  doing 
this  now  in  some  departments,  but  in  others  are  unable  to  do  so 
because  of  the  number  of  women  there  employed,  whom  we  are  for- 
bidden to  employ  for  more  than  nine  hours  in  one  day. 

If  we  could  extend  this  time  a  very  small  margin,  we  should  be  able 
to  give  all  our  help  a  full  day  off  each  Saturday,  which  has  been 
found  pleasing  to  them  so  far  as  we  have  been  able  to  do  it,  and 
affords  a  considerable  saving  to  us  in  fuel  (25  tons  a  week),  an  item 
quite  important  under  present  conditions. 

A  manufacturer  of  workingmen's  clothing  also  reported  a 
preference  for  a  five-day  week  under  conditions  which  existed 
in  that  state: 

We  have  a  state  law  which  prohibits  the  employing  of  female  labor 
in  excess  of  8  hours  in  any  one  day,  and  were  it  not  for  this  law  we 
believe  a  much  better  and  more  satisfactory  44-hour  week  could  be 
arranged  by  having  the  workers  put  in  9  hours  each  on  the  first  four 
days  of  the  week  and  8  hours  on  Friday  and  then  close  the  plant 
entirely  on  Saturday.  This  arrangement  would  give  the  workers 
two  days  for  rest  and  recreation  and  would  tend  to  keep  them  more 
steadily  on  the  job. 

So  far  as  the  length  of  the  work  week  is  concerned,  if  all  manufac- 
turers were  on  the  same  basis,  we  would  see  no  objection  to  a  44-hour 
week.  It  does,  however,  have  a  tendency,  owing  to  the  one-twelfth 
reduction  in  output  it  entails,  to  increase  the  overhead  expense  in  com- 
petition with  other  concerns  in  the  same  line  of  business  operating 
48  hours  per  week.  The  44-hour  week  affords  the  workers  one-half  day 
each  week  for  shopping,  medical  and  dental  attention,  and  probably 
has  a  tendency  to  do  away  with  absence  from  work  of  even  a  longer 
period  during  a  week  where  the  factory  is  run  a  full  48  hours,  especially 
in  cities  where  the  majority  of  retail  establishments  close  in  the 
afternoon  at  the  same  time  as  the  factory. 


88 


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